XVIIIe century

See also: List of the centuries, Roman numerals ---- The century begins on January 1st 1701 and finishes the December 31st 1800. Historically, it is often considered that it begins in 1715 with the death of Louis XIV and in 1815 with the fall of Napoleon 1st finishes and the Congrès of Vienna. This century was also called Age of Enlightenment because of its important transformations Philosophique S into Europe (in Germany: , in England and in the USA: ) which was going to lead to the advent of the Démocratie, in England, in the USA with the American Révolution, and in France with the French revolution.

Events

Europe

France/England

War Seven Year old (1756-1763) between France and England. England starts to take an advantage in Europe.

1789 release of the French revolution

Apogée of the triangular Commerce

This trade takes place between Europe (shoddy goods, fabrics, small glasswares, firearms, etc), Western and equatorial Africa (slaves) and the Antilles and Americas (agricultural produce: cotton, the…). Six to seven million black slaves are off-set by Europeans towards America at the 18th century, 40 000 each year of 1700 with 1750, 80 000 of 1750 with 1800. W.E.B. Dubois, who advances the figure of fifteen million deportees between and the middle of the 19th century, estimates that for an alive slave made to America, it is necessary to at sea count five men killed in Africa during the raids or died. The draft towards America would have thus cost Africa 60 million men, quantifies who would reach a hundred million men by adding the draft in direction of the Moslem countries of the Mediterranean and the countries of the East and the Far East.

2,5 million men surroundings is off-set in the Spanish colonies (578 600) and Portugueses (1 891 000) of South America; 348 000 towards the British colonies (the United States); 1 401 300 towards British Isles (662 000 in Jamaica, 301 900 towards Isles under the wind, 252 000 with the Barbados); 1 348 400 in the French islands (789 700 with Saint-Dominique, 258 000 with the Martinique, 237 000 with the Guadeloupe); 460 000 in the Dutch islands and 24 000 in the Danish islands.
the slave traders do not take part directly in the capture. They buy their slaves with chiefs and sovereign local, who razzient the close tribes and exchange their prisoners on the littoral against products made in Europe. Many tribes disappear. Others gather to constitute States which become in their turn merchants of slaves.

Italy

the Italy does not benefit from the positive economic conjuncture of the 18th century. At the time of the first industrial revolution, the Italy is low in coal and iron. Areas as the Venezia know a level of industrialization close to that of the Dauphiné, the textile activity remains sharp in the areas of Padoue, Vicence, Vérone and Bergamo, the paper mill with Trévise and the metallurgy close to Bergamo and Brescia. But the textile declines during the century in Venezia (like the glassmaking with Murano), with Padoue, in the Milanais, in Toscane. Italy exports agricultural produce and imports manufactured goods, ending up occupying a limited and secondary commercial space. The interior market narrows and the heaviness of the social links and institutional blocks production and exchange. The structure of the corporations prevents any increase in production.

the company becomes more and more a rural company, the difficulties encountered by the cities implying a reinforcement of their control on the campaigns. Contrasts between areas are accentuated: extensive farming of cereals and breeding or intensive agriculture. The increasing marketing of the agricultural food products makes that the profit becomes the sought-after goal with the detriment of self-sufficiency. The Maïs becomes the basic food of the farming populations ( polenta ) and makes it possible to avoid the famines, to market more wheat, in spite of the Pellagre that its excessive consumption often involves. Rice progresses in Piedmont and in the Milanais. The plain of the Po knows a relative modernization of agriculture: artificial specialization, irrigation, fodder, rotation (corn). The Tuscan , the Ombrie, the Steps, the slopes of the Vesuvius knows similar evolutions. But in a general way, rural Italy presents characters of backwardness started to the 17th century (extension of the marshes, waste lands and maquis, decline of the irrigation), consequence of the process of “refeodalisation”, implying the extensive farming of cereals and the wandering breeding (the Apennines, Maremmes, Roman countryside, Sicily, Naples).

At the beginning of the century, by the means of the donations, more than one third of the Italian property is subjected to the ecclesiastical mortmain, with the hands of administrators creatures of habit who sell only seldom the grounds without to take great care there.

America S

the United States of America

Because of the expenses caused by the War Seven Year old, the British crown seeks to refund the war debts by imposing the American colonists heavily. The landowners refuse the taxes and engage the Guerre of independence of the United States of America (1775 - 1783).

Following the Virginia, where Thomas Jefferson pulse the first declaration of independence in June 1776, Thirteen colonies gather to make a declaration of independence common on July 4th 1776 to the congress of Philadelphia.

In 1783, the treated of Paris puts a term at the Guerre of American independence. The territories in the west of the the Mississippi are yielded by England to the the United States.

In 1784, Thomas Jefferson proposes with the American Congrès a law which relates to the grounds in the north of the Ohio, that the Virginia yields to the United States. After that of 1784, the ordinances of the North-West of 1785 and 1787 create a methodical system of development of the country. The ordinance of 1785 provides that the North-West is cut out in townships square format.

the American Constitution is established in 1787, on the model of the plan of the Virginia suggested by James Madison.

Brazil

the economic and cultural center of colonial Brazil will move towards the Minas Gerais where important gold layers and invaluable stones are discovered (1705). Intensification of the exploitation of gold mainly around Villa Rica, Sabara and São João LED-Rei.
the lack of servile labor pushes armed bands to be caught of them with the missions Jésuite S and to the Indians. In 1760, expulsion of the Jesuits in order to break their economic power and their political influence.
In 1763, transfer of the capital of Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro.
In 1775, abolition of the slavery of the Indians, but replaced by slaves coming from the Angola controlled and sold to the Brazilian growers.
In 1789, revolutionary movement in the State of the Minas Gerais, carried out by the '' Tiradentes '' with like idea the independence of the Brazil…

Africa

the Maghreb

At the beginning of the century, the Regency of Algiers sinks in anarchy. The deys who follow one another Algiers do not have real capacity on the beys who control the provinces, with Constantine, Mascara and Médéa. They do not have any more the force necessary to organize on large scales the race in the Mediterranean, their main resource.
Decline of the race in front of the superiority of the European fleets.

the population of the interior of the the Maghreb, made of Arab and Berber, is divided into tribes which constitute the administrative cell, social, economic and even nun. Certain tribes ( maghzen or guich ) profit from important privileges in exchange of the military service which it owe to the sultan. The force of the tribes comes from the weakness of the State and the cut which exists between the State and the company. The main concern of the State is the taxation, which causes revolts which call into question its legitimacy.
the ways of life oppose the sedentary farmers and the seminomad stockbreeders. Average the techniques did not evolve/move since the Roman epoch (swing-plow, sickle, grinding stone with hand). Others disappeared, like the cart. The culture of the cane with sugar, flourishing in Haouz under Saadiens, disappeared. Certain areas like the Tunisia of the North-East (Tunis, Bizerte, Cape Good, valley of the Medjerda) on the other hand were revivified by the arrival of Andalusian refugees who cultivate the vine, the olive-trees and vegetables.

Western Africa

the Peuls of the Macina settle with Say, in the Dendi and dislocate the Songhaï in several small kingdoms.
the Touareg occupy Gao, attack the Dendi and Tombouctou and dominate all the loop of the Niger.

the foreign trade of Western Africa, which exports primarily slaves, increases during the century of 2 million books at the beginning to approximately 4 million at the end.

the French counters of Saint-Louis of Senegal and Gorée, to the Senegal, send in America until 2 000 slaves per annum. 50 000 came from the gulf of Guinea. 7 000 forwarded by the mouth of the Zaire and Sao Tome.

the Mauritania and the Senegal become the principal gum arabic producers. Its price passes 3,4 pounds the ton in 1718 to 30,4 pounds towards 1790 and to nearly 70 books in 1825 - 1830.

central Africa

At the beginning of the century, the Portuguese kingdom of Benguela (Angola) extends between the rivers Kwanza, Cunene and the Atlantique, including the town of Mossamédès. The populations Ovimbundu which belong to the kingdom had certainly at the previous century of the close contacts with the kingdom Zimbabwe. The penetration resistance Portuguese is very sharp.
the kingdom of Benguela provides slaves to the Brésil.

Invasion of the Pahouins, driven out by the Mvélé of the Savanna of the north of the Sagana (Cameroun) towards the south. They cross the Equatorial forest. Some are fixed at it (Eton, Ewondo, Boulou). Others (Fang) will reach towards 1850 the estuary of the Ogoué (Gabon) and will come into contact with Europeans.

the kingdom of Kitouara (Bounyoro) extends until the Ruanda and to the Lake Victoria. The kingdom of the Bouganda (Bantou) takes form and begins its expansion under the reign of the kabaka Kyabagou. Ntare Ier founds the kingdom of the Burundi.
the company of the Ankole or the Ruanda is made up of superimposed and hierarchical ethnos groups: Pygmies Hutu Twa, bantous and Tutsi éthiopides, which ensured their preeminence by the monopoly of the cattle.

Madagascar

At the beginning of the century, Ramananao, chief of the area of Vatomandry, seizes Tamatave and Fénérive with the Tsikoa.
A few years later, Ratsimilaho, wire of the British pirate Thomas White and of the princess Rahana, becomes, on its return of London, the chief of the Zana Malata and overcomes the Tsikoa. It takes the name of Ramaromanompo, calls its kingdom the Betsimisaraka and obtains the alliance of the Sakalava by marrying the girl of the sovereign of the Boina. He dies in 1750.

the son of a king Betsiléo founds a third kingdom, that of Isandra, in the west of the Lalangina. Finally a fourth kingdom, the Manandriana, is founded in the north of the Lalangina and the Isandra.

the east coast of Madagascar then is populated much than the west coast. Many independent kingdoms were constituted, like that of the Betsimisaraka.

At the 18th century, the French dominate the traffic of the slaves over the east coast. The Western frontage is opened to the slave traders British, Arab, French or Portuguese.

Asia

Mongolia

the Church LAMA ïste makes build many monasteries at the beginning of the century. These religious centers are surrounded by great fields which theirs are granted by the Manchu administration on the laic grounds. The enrichment of the Lamaserie S goes hand in hand with the rise to power of the capacity of the Church lamaïste which with the confidence of the Manchu capacity.
the new ecclesiastical habit requires that each family put one of her male children at the service of the Church, as of the age of seven or eight years (during second half of the century, an imperial decree will make compulsory the assent of the lord laic). The apprentices spangled ( bandi ) are subordinated to the Master ( bakchi ). At the fifteen years age, the bandi prepares with the following degree, the guetsoul , and becomes monk with whole share. Spangled spend six months per annum in the family yurt to preach among the arates, by the way of Buddhist philosophy, an absolute resignation and a total acceptance of the established order. Scholars, they enjoy a great regard. At the top of the hierarchy, resulting from the laic aristocracy, the koubilgans are the reincarnation of famous ecclesiastical characters or divinities.

Korea

During and the 18th century, the Choson is controlled by kings and administrations qualified, in spite of the periodic appearance of conflicts between various factions. The leading class integrates newcomers gradually.

the cash economy and the market economy take a considerable rise. These complex changes put to the test the political system and social of Choson, which will start to crumble at the 19th century.

Art and Culture

Literature

French Literature of the {{S|XVIII|E}}
Closing of the French Academy in 1795, until 1805.
After the death of the translator and linguist Tchoski Odzer (?), the Linguistique takes in Mongolia a considerable rise (and 19th century). The study of the foreign languages, within the multinational Manchu empire, also takes importance. Historical works deal mainly of India and Tibet, but also with other countries.

Movable

Style Louis XV

Painting

Principal representatives:

Antoine Watteau
Fragonard

Music

First half of the century: apogee of the Baroque music, with Jean-Sebastien Bach, Georg Friedrich Haendel, Antonio Vivaldi, Domenico Scarlatti and Jean-Philippe Branch,
Second half: traditional period, with Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Dance

India: Râsa-lîlâ, spectacle of ballet dancing putting in scene the life of Krisna in the style Manipurî, developped at the point at the 18th century in the Manipur.

Significant characters

Politicians

Pascal Paoli (Pasquale de Paoli in Corsica language) - Corsica, called " wire of the lumière" he proclaims the independence of Corsica in 1769, opens a university in Corte and makes strike a currency.
Benjamin Franklin (Boston, 1706 - Philadelphia, 1790), physicist, writer and American politician .
Thomas Jefferson (1743 - 1826), author of the Declaration of independence of the United States (1776), and third president of the the United States.
Stanisław Leszczyński (Lwów, Poland, 1677 - Lunéville, France, 1766). Patron and fine art lover of the Duchy of Lorraine. King de Pologne of 1704 with 1717, then of 1733 with 1734. Duke of Lorraine and Bar of 1738 and this until its death.
Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748 - 1836), writer of the Oath of the Play of palm, and one of the authors of Constitution.
Louis XV, king de France (Versailles, 1710 - Versailles, 1774)
Louis XVI, king de France (Versailles, 1754 - Paris, 1793)
William Pitt the Young person, British Prime Minister, 1783 with 1801 and of 1804 with 1806

Writer S

See:

French Writers born with the {{S|XVIII|E}}
Italian Writers born with the {{S|XVIII|E}}

Pierre-Augustin Charon de Beaumarchais, French writer
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German writer
Laurence Tern, English writer
Jonathan Swift, Irish writer

Philosopher S

Voltaire (Paris, 1694 - Paris, 1778), writer and philosopher French.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Geneva, 1712 - Ermenonville, 1778), writer and philosopher Genevese.
Denis Diderot (Langres, 1713 - Paris, 1784), writer and philosopher French, author with D' Alembert of the '' Encyclopédie ''.
Montesquieu (1689 - 1755), moralist, thinker, and philosopher French.
Emmanuel Kant (Königsberg, 1724 - id, 1804), German philosopher .

See: Philosophical of the {{S|XVIII|E}}

Architect S

Angel-Jacques Gabriel, French architect
Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect
Jacques Philippe Mareschal, architect and engineer French
Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Austrian architect

See: Architects of the {{S|XVIII|E}}

Scientists

Buffon (Montbard, Burgundy, 1707 - Paris, 1788), naturalist and writer French, author of thirty-six volumes of the Natural history .
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 - 1829), Biologist French.