Universalization

Definitions

The term “universalization” appears in the French language in 1964 within the economic framework of work S and Géopolitique S; it means the increase in the movements of goods, services, labor, technology and capital to the international scales. It initially indicates the only movement of extension of the markets of the industrial products on a geopolitical block scale of the Cold war. Confined a long time with the academic field, it spreads during the Années 1990, on the one hand under the influence of the theses of emergence of a “total village” ranges by the philosopher Marshall McLuhan, and especially by the means of the movements antimondialist S and altermondialist S, which attracts, by their denomination even, the attention of the public on the extent of the phenomenon.

In the anglophone world, the popularization of the term globalization and its use as term hold-all accentuated the academic debate. It is now allowed that the term indicates the development of the interdependence on a world level. Starting from this general standard each large academic current stresses the dimension which appears to him most relevant. For example, certain academics as Manuel Manors house concentrate on the bond between economic dimensions and social. Others, like John Urry, stress the increasing complexity which characterizes all the human exchanges (economic, cultural and political). One can as note as the term and its popularity are related to the problems of development, as Jan Nederveen Pieterse shows it. The polemics which agitate the anglophone academic world reflect the existence of a planetary debate. Urry is English but Castells is Spanish and Dutch Pieterse.

The reader of these lines must thus keep in mind that the terms globalization and universalization and the directions which are allotted to them always reflect the point of view and the current of thought of the enonciator S.

Origins and evolutions

The distinction between these two terms is specific to the French language. The English word (US) original is globalization , taken again by the majority of the others Langues. In English, the various approaches globalization /mondialisation are explored by different currents from thoughts. The anglophone term globalization largely covers the same debate as the French-speaking semantic difference. As in the French-speaking world, various people will give various directions under the terms, stressing economic dimension, cultural or political, according to their membership, conscious or not, with such or such current of thought.

From an etymological point of view, World (universe) and sphere are sufficiently close so that universalization and globalisation is synonymous in their initial use in French language (1964 for the first, 1965 for the second).

However, proximity of globalisation with English and the characteristic of universalization brought a divergence Sémantique.

In French, the term globalisation indicate the supposed extension of the economic reasoning to all the human activities and evokes its limitation with the Globe. On the other hand the " term; mondialisation" indicate the planetary extension of the exchanges which they are Culturel S, Politique S, economic S or others. Within this framework the expression world can indicate moreover the space near to the Ground, accessible by average aeronautics or space (satellite S), or take specific significances to each Culture (the Chinese Monde…). On the other hand, the expression financial globalisation forced itself to indicate the constitution of an integrated worldwide market of the capital. In addition, the problems of Environnement arise from now on on a worldwide scale, for example the Déforestation or the Pollution due to the development of transport.

The semantic difference can be considered under another angle. Some see in the globalisation term the simple transposition of the English term in French, globalisation being synonymous with universalization. Others see a difference in nature between the two terms and regard the globalisation as a stage after the universalization, which would exceed it and consist of a dissolution of the national identities and the abolition of the borders within the world networks of exchange.

Completely generic, the universalization term indicates a historical process by which individuals, human activities and structures Politique S see their mutual dependence and their material exchanges as much as immaterial increasing on significant distances to the scale of planet. It consists of the increasing interdependence of the economies and contributes to the expansion of the exchanges and the human Interaction S.

Universalizations

The genesis of the term explains why this process is generally considered under the only aspect of the economic Mondialisation, development of the exchanges of goods and services, accentuated since the end of the Années 1980 by the creation of Financial markets on the level Mondial. However are added to it:

the Cultural aspect which brings the access of a very broad part of the world population to elements of Culture of populations sometimes very distant on the one hand and also the awakening by the countries developed as a whole of the diversity of the Culture S with the level Mondial.
the Political aspect which the development of international organizations and ONG represents.
the Sociological aspect of universalization summarized by Zygmunt Bauman, sociologist and professor emeritus of the universities of Warsaw and Leeds: “ universalization is inescapable and irreversible. We live already in a world of interconnection and interdependence on the scale of planet. All that can occur some share affects the life and the future of people everywhere else. When one evaluates the measures to be taken in a given place, it is necessary to take into account the reactions in the rest of the world. No sovereign territory, if vast, if populated, however rich is it, cannot only protect with him its living conditions, its safety, its long-term prosperity, its social model or the existence of its inhabitants. Our mutual dependence is exerted on a worldwide scale (…) ”.

In any rigor, it would thus be advisable to speak about the universalization S , in order to distinguish the field considered (economy, Culture, Politique) and the historical period considered.

An inescapable phenomenon?

The inescapable or natural character of the process of universalization is often proposed (see the preceding quotation).

However, this idea, presented like a “generally accepted idea” by the movements of Extreme left, can be moderate when one more closely is interested in the commercial and financial aspects phenomenon. Indeed, on the one hand “the share of exports in the worldwide production of 1913 will be exceeded only in 1970 and since then stagnates”, and on the other hand “the movements Nets of capital are currently more modest than at the beginning of the 20th century”.

Thus, for Martin Wolf, " universalization concerns if not a myth, at least of an abuse langage".

Mondialism

If the universalization is a process which is translated in the facts, the Mondialisme is a Idéologie. This one affirms the inescapable character of universalization and its incompatibility with the structure of the State-nation, its character inherent in want to bring final peace by the introduction of a world Gouvernement passing by a Humanisme. The mondialism as such does not constitute however an ideology made up. One finds it within vaster ideologies, energy of the néolibéral to the Internationalisme of Extreme-left.

A slip of the direction of the term towards its only néo-liberal meaning gave rise to the terms of Antimondialisation and Altermondialisation to indicate currents of thought respectively aiming limiting the process of universalization or at modifying the contents of it.

Designs of universalization

At once that universalization was essential like planetary phenomenon, one sought to define it. Two designs, which one can say “unit” and “conflict and plural” clash around the explanation of this phenomenon.

Unit design

According to the unit design, universalization evokes the concept of a linked world, of a world forming a planetary village, of a world without border. This in a geographical, ideological or economic approach. This design is supported by International organizations or international institutions (in particular the the IMF, OMC and others), by the ideological current in particular the Mondialisme. It is also divided by some analysts.

To define universalization as the unification of the world means that one speaks about the interpenetration of the Culture S, the Technologie S and the economies (integration in the worldwide economy). So the expressions like World Culture or world Civilization, world governorship, worldwide economy, even world citizen are used more and more.

If the unit approach of universalization profits from the assets of the 21e century (i.e. progress and revolution of the technology which reinforces physical integration, the internationalization and the expansion of the financial operations; and the position of capitalism, only economic system and center of the worldwide economy), it is followed, however, by all the critics fusing on the market economy or the Capitalisme.

The design which defines universalization as the unification of the world in addition contains a intellectual position which preaches more opening to arrive at a world peace, a total removal of the borders. On the other hand, even if this design would have the advantage of creating in the man the germ of the hope, it would remain however restrictive insofar as it would neglect the other manifestations of universalization.

Conflict and pluralist design

Opposed to the unit design, the conflict and pluralist design regards current form of universalization as the source of our problems. It proposes an approach of Coopération rather than of setting in Concurrence, which is the basic principle of current form of universalization. The most savage sympathizers of this design are the currents Altermondialiste and Antimondialiste. It is also divided by some independent analysts. The problems raised by this approach of universalization are those of heterogeneity, the incompatibility, fragmentation and the Intégration, the Ordre and the disorder, the Inégalité, exclusion and the Solidarité, the Domination, the Exploitation, the ideological confrontations and the human relations which are often controls by power struggles.

This Conception would present according to its holding advantage a little more clearly of apprehending the various elements of this phenomenon to the multiple aspects whereas the first would be articulated around one only point. Because of being defended by the altermondialists, this design is generally seen like a economic and social Théorie near to the Socialisme, in particular because it takes the defense of poorest. The vision of the Altermondialisme is more co-operation that of competition of the populations.

History

See also the economic article Universalization

If the term “universalization” is recent, it indicates however various periods of the Histoire, of which certain old.

In Antiquity

Disputed there is still little, the idea that a kind of process comparable to universalization took place in antiquity is recognized more and more by the specialists as the fact shows it that a conference on this subject was recently organized with the senate.

One can locate a first expression of this process as from the second millenium before Jesus-Christ: a vast retail park extending from the undue money in the Minoan world via the cities of the fertile crescent. This first attempt will be of short duration because of stop of the commercial exchanges caused by the irruption of Indo-European invaders at the end of the second millenium.

One second attempt will take place starting from the foundation of the Persian empire which allows that is established an indirect commercial contact between the colonies phenicians and Greek, and Indian cities, between Gibraltar and Gange. The Greeks thus will discover to fully take conscience of wide world as shows it the relations of Hérodote, and, more still, of Ctésias de Cnide, doctor of the large Persian king.

Far from putting a term at this process of commercial, cultural and diplomatic unification of the ancient world, destruction of the Persian empire, and the hellenistic formation of the States will increase it appreciably. Thus the " mondialisation" hellenistic it divides many common features with that of our time:

the mixing of the populations: following the conquests of Alexandre the Greeks go intaller a little everywhere in the Persian empire (in particular in Bactriane). Consequently create for themselves cosmopolitan cities the following the example of Alexandria, populated Greeks, Egyptians, Jews and the Eastern ones.
the constitution of a world culture: the Greek koiné becomes the Lingua Franca , and the Greek culture becomes universal culture that endeavor to acquire the not-Greek. Joined there the constitution of a welt-Literatur (the library of Alexandria containing Indian and Buddhist texts).
intensification and the universalization of the exchanges: the trade becomes particularly flourishing, primarily owing to the fact that Alexandre reinjects the liquidities there hitherto thesaurized by Persians. In addition the quasi-disappearance of any imperial authority puts at evil the tariff barriers. Appear thus many typical phenomena of an economy " mondialized ": Greeks installed in India making Bouddha which will be exported until the Japan.
multilateralism: constitution of more or less equal States by their size and their force, which involves a certain emulation
the technical innovation: great scientific discoveries and advanced technical which will not be equalized before a long time with Syracuse and Alexandria in particular.

Before the 17th century

The men of the 17th century or the former centuries had representations of the world different as of ours. The ground was populated of less than 700 million inhabitants. One cannot thus really speak about universalization.

It is however noted that political events and Culturel S major punctuate the History:

Extension of the Roman Empire, unification of the China, great shifts in population,

Extension of the Byzantine Empire as from the 6th century (emperor Justinien),

Formation of the Carolingian Empire at the 9th century-10th century, Moslem extension,

Opening of trade route as of the end of the 10th century in Europe (Rich cf Pierre, the Europe term was not employed yet), (Foires of Champagne at the 12th century, at that time, the China is flourishing with the Song empire.

the China launched between 1415 and 1433 of forwardings towards the Africa (admiral Zheng He) much more daring than forwardings of Christophe Colomb.

the Renaissance at the 15th century is accompanied by maritime exchanges at sea by north, at sea Baltique (Hanse), and between the North Sea and the ports Italian which circumvent the Spain. At the 16th century the Grandes discoveries will follow.

These changes are accompanied by a considerable extension of known space as well as economic exchanges, technological and Culturel S between Civilization S.

The study of the exchanges of goods of these times incites to think that the historiography of the 19th century underestimated the importance of the material exchanges and Culturel S between Civilization S distant until the end from the Moyen-âge. For example:

the Silk route existed well before the 13th century,
the description of regular commercial links between the area of the Baltic and Rome,
the discovery in China of vases Greek S accredits the existence of world movements of goods and of ideas as of the Antiquité,
One can also give in example the fundamental role of trade route Arab S on the Islam isation of the Africa,
There were also exchanges between the India and the Islam about the 9th century, leading to the progressive introduction in Europe of the decimal system of numeration positional starting from the Year millet.

With, the movement of the Renaissance involves large a upheaval: the Imprimerie appears, one becomes aware of the rotundity of the ground, Europeans make Grandes discoveries.

During the Age of Enlightenment, the diffusion of the press, the awakening of the Héliocentrisme, the Industrialization and the Colonisation involve other types of upheavals, that Montesquieu analyzes in these terms:

“Today we receive three different or contrary educations: that of our fathers, that of our Masters, that of the world. What one says to us in the last shift all the ideas of the first”.

The 19th century: rise of the industrial revolution

The 19th century marks truly the rise of the industrial revolution corresponding to the period called contemporary by the historians. The essential spring of the process is then the lowering of the costs of transport, with the generalization of the Steam engine and that of the costs of communication with the Télégraphe. These two elements allow the connection of the various parts of the sphere and important transfers of men, goods and knowledge according to the inequalities of settlement, richness and being able.

The 19th century (heard within the meaning of the historians, it begins with the French revolution and finishes with the First World War) thus sees proceeding flows of population to the planetary scales. Whereas in Europe, the agricultural Révolution moves away the peasants from their countryside and that the cities absorb with difficulty the sudden rise of the population of the old continent (it quadruples between 1750 and 1900), the Westerners migrate massively throughout the world (Americas, Australia, Algérie…). These flows of population modify in-depth the distribution of labor on a world level.

At the economic level, the Industrialization makes possible the development of exchanges of manufactured goods between industrialized countries and in the course of industrialization, while the Colonisation involves raw material flows since the colonies towards Europe. The economic impact of these exchanges is however weak taking into consideration that induces by the world migrations.

The Colonisation also causes to integrate the essence of planet in a common political space, and to support financial transfers between country like worms the colonies.

In the Cultural field, the multiplication of the accounts of voyage or modes as the Japonisme shows rise to power in the imaginary European of others Culture S, themselves often put at evil by colonization. Jules Verne makes make in Philéas Fogg the Round the world tour in eighty days , thanks to the European technical genius. At that time however, the Mondialisme finds its first expression of width on the base of the Marxisme with the foundation of the Internationales.

Chaos of the “short 20th century”

The beginnings of the 20th century are marked by an increasing mistrust with regard to the world exchanges, involving the fold of many countries on themselves to the detriment of the process of universalization.

the phenomenon starts in the sector where the exchanges were most important, that of human flows. By setting up Quota S at immigration (1911 for the Asian ones, 1921 for the other populations), the the United States stop the most important flow brutally, while the Russian revolutions deprive Europe of an important business partner and financier.

the majority of the countries then set up important tariff barriers in the aim of protection their economy. This abrupt bulk-heading of the material and financial exchanges is a crucial factor of the crisis of the Années 1930, which marks the stagnation point quasi-total of universalization.

the rejection of this process exceeds the economic simple plan then to extend to the policy, with the collapse of the Société of the Nations and a refusal of the foreign Culture S and foreigners themselves which often turns to the Xénophobie.

If the beginning of the 20th century slows down universalization, second half of the 20th revival and accelerates this process. After 1945, this one begins again, in a very unequal way according to the fields. The rebuilding of Europe thus, the installation of the Soviet Bloc then the Décolonisation S limit the range of the exchanges of goods and services. Universalization fits then rather in the creation of international organizations, UNO, the World Bank, the IMF or GATT, like in the generalization of the products of the Culture of the the United States, in particular the Cinéma.

Whereas the term is already used, it is only towards 1971 that the exchanges of goods find, in share of world GDP, their level of 1910 and that begins again truly economic universalization. Supported on the fall of the costs of transport, this one indicates primarily the development of the exchanges in goods manufactured between rich countries and new industrialized countries (South Korea, Taiwan, Brésil, Argentine…), which accounts for 80% of the world commerce. Within the Comecon, the Planification supports in the same way important exchanges of goods, largely in insulation with respect to the rest of the world.

At the beginning of the Years 1980, vast geographical areas (Africa, essential of Asia) as well as the primary sectors (Agriculture) and tertiary sectors (services) remain out of the process of universalization economic, while flows of population remain weak. In addition, the improvement of flows of information as well as the easing of the laws relating to the overseas investment support the setting in place on the market financial of international scales.

Aspects of contemporary universalization

Economic aspects

The evaluation of the consequences of economic universalization comprises several aspects, very contrasted according to the Richesse of the country considered.

Rich countries

For the rich countries, the economic Mondialisation comprises two essential benefit. The first benefits the Consommateur, which has access to a broader range of goods (diversity) at a price weaker than if they were manufactured in the country even. Quantitatively, this effect is considerable, and can be apprehended by adding the profits with the consumers to the Chinese product purchase textile. The second benefit benefits the holders from the Capital, who obtain a better output of their capital.

The rich countries suffer on the other hand from the Délocalisation their intensive industries in Main-d'oeuvre little qualified, as well as Concurrence increased between rich countries themselves. Quantitatively not very important, these effects pose problems however owing to the fact that they are localized, touching particularly certain individuals or certain areas, whereas the profits are distributed on the whole of the Population. This said, the share of the active population in competition with the Main-d'oeuvre little qualified Pays in the process of development is only of 3%.

However, the scientific and technological levels of the China and the India approach the Western standards very quickly, and the quality of the Télécommunication S make that the direct competition of the active populations relates to the middle-classes now (delocalization of the cal centers for example), and engineers (all the great groups of software have an antenna in full rise in India).

Certain quantitative studies econometric trying to evaluate these two aspects would have concluded that the profits of the rich countries with the international Division of work are higher than the losses (Délocalisation S, Désindustrialisation). The problem of the rich countries vis-a-vis the economic Mondialisation would be thus before a whole problem of distribution of profits in order to be able to compensate the losers in their granting a share of the profits proportioned to their loss.

However the objectivity of these studies is currently called in question, the majority of them being realized by international agencies preaching themselves universalization when they are not themselves the craftsmen (the World Bank, the IMF, OMC).

During these two last decades, universalization was not carrying growth in Europe. It would have rather been generating of iniquities and environmental damage. In spite of this failure, the dogma néo-liberal on the virtues of the Free trade continuous to being relayed by the majority of the economists as if the theory of the comparative advantages of Ricardo applied to the current world.

The economic Mondialisation also encourages the rich countries to be made competition as regards Réglementation, of Social protection, Fiscalité and education. The assessment of this competition is currently impossible to establish. According to the opinions, it leads to a lowest bidder in various fields, where it privileges the most effective State S to control their way of life, where finally it highlights inefficiencies of the various social models and some go until speaking then about Social dumping.

The social movements really being able to be expressed efficiently only on the level of the State-nation, vis-a-vis a political power of proximity, universalization prevents the class struggle and risk in the long term to destroy the social protections installation in the developed States.

New industrialized countries

Until the Asian Crisis, the new industrialized countries seemed the big winners of economic universalization. Benefitting from a qualified labor and low costs, they profited from very important investments coming from the rich countries like the financial aid brought to Japan by the United States after the second world war, which enabled them to build a modern economy and a system of thorough formation, to leave poverty. The Asian crisis however showed the extent of their dependence with regard to prompt financial markets with the speculative racing as with panic.

The assessment of economic universalization for these countries thus is very contrasted, with side of the countries, like the South Korea or Taiwan definitively classified among the rich countries, others, Thailand, Filipino, has evil to recover from the volatility of the investments, and others still profit very largely from universalization on the level of the country, but with a very unequal distribution of these profits (Brésil, China).

Poor countries

At the economic level, the poorest countries remain largely apart from the process of universalization. This one requires indeed stable institutions, a respect of the right of the private property, an absence of corruption as well as a certain human development (health and education) that do not present the majority of these countries. Their principal economic resource, the Agriculture, remains dominated by the protectionist strategies of the rich countries, except for the Culture S specific to the poor countries.

Aspects Financial S

Aspects Cultural S

The access of a growing number of individuals to information networks and communication commun runs leads to two effects:

the first is a catch of increased Conscience of the Cultural diversity and Interdépendance of the whole of the individuals. Because of multiplication of the Information sources, that is expressed by better a Connaissance of the Environnement and stakes Mondiaux. The Cultural heritage world exchange of face: UNESCO draws up of it more documented image (Liste Memory of the world) and more alive (oral and immaterial Patrimoine of humanity). Minority Culture S (Amerindian, Bushmen) thus could find a visibility new, while the questions with international dimension see the rise to power of the ONG as actors of foreground. In the same way, the strong mixing of the religious and philosophical currents stimulated the oecumenism and the Dialog inter-monk. But conversely, of the identity communautarisms founded on a refusal of the Relativisme and the assertion of the superiority of a Culture on the others, developed in a concomitant way.

the second is the emergence of a kind of “common Culture” marked in particular by the recourse to a “ English of communication ” (sometimes called Globish , for total english ), impoverished version of the English language, the American references Cultural S or Western ranges by products Cultural S (cinema, Music, television) or lifestyles (Western sports, Italian, Chinese kitchen…). Some see there a risk of impoverishment of the Cultural diversity, even the domination of a certain design of the economic and social reports/ratios. The term of universal Civilization is in oneself object of polemic.

Institutional and political aspects

Universalization, granting in its mode of regulation a primacy to international on the national, can be read like an acceleration of a world phenomenon of economic integration started as of the 16th century, process unequal on the geographical and progressive level on a temporal scale. It again creates challenges of institutional organization and distribution of the political powers on a world scale.

A certain marginalisation of the States

The traditional tools of the Public policy, Taxation and Regulation, lose of their effectiveness in a Environnement mondialized. Their application then asks for the co-operation of several State S, always delicate to obtain and maintain.

Universalization generates Economic agents, means of Information and Financial flow S whose width escapes the Contrôle from the structure of the State-nations. So the majority of the governments deplore their impotence vis-a-vis these phenomena as long as the international relations are regulated by other rules only the interest of the States.

For the Level European, it is necessary to note the existence of a certain will to harmonize the National accountings, in order to define a typology standardized of the Economic agents in institutional units and institutional sectors.

A role in becoming transnational actors

The recent acceleration of universalization involves a diversification and a autonomisation of the transnational actors. It forces the international organizations (the World Bank, the IMF, OECD, Forum of Davos, G8) to redefine their speeches and their actions.

ONG (governmental organizations) try to fill this vacuum, but they miss Légitimité to claim to represent the Citoyen S of the world, and are often marked by Idéologie S partisanes.

On their side the Syndicat S included/understood the interest to tackle the question of work according to a mondialized approach, by gathering in a international Trade-union confederation.

Human and social aspects

Today, 4% of the world population live apart from its country of birth.

Migrations

Inequalities of incomes

Tourism

Ecological aspects

See also: Effects of universalization on the environment

The risks ecological S are also partly globalisés and threaten great balances. Certain aspects of the ecological Crises take a world dimension, in particular the Climate change and its various characteristics: Greenhouse effect, risk of disturbance of the marine currents, loss of Biodiversity, Deforestation, etc

The awakening of the ecological Crise pushed the scientists to think ecology overall, according to the formula of Rene Dubos (“to think overall, to act locally”): the experts of the total ecology speak about écosphère, of Biosphère,… Poussés by the ONG, the leaders of the world meet at the time of Sommets of the Earth to lay down policies of Sustainable development. These policies have transpositions on the territories and the companies, seeking to cross the three aspects which are the Environnement, the social , and the economic .

Certain approaches tend to apprehend the Risque S overall according to their ecological, social or economic characteristics: Protocol of Kyoto, models climatic and work of GIEC, standards on the total risks (resulting in accessible world Databases on the Fabric), etc

The awakening of the unicity of planet vis-a-vis the ecological problems is a fundamental characteristic of the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21e century. Several events indeed marked this beginning of millenium on the ecological level and sociétal. The ecological questions engage from now on the responsibility for the companies. They find their expression in the development of the Governmental organizations (WWF, Doctors without borders, etc), which become interlocutors of the Entreprise S, among others Recipients.

These stakes of globalisation involve the need for policies of Innovation, in which the Connaissance S and the Intellectual property have even more importance than the communications tools pure.

Crucial factors of contemporary universalization

The current form of the universalization of the end of the 20th century and the 21e century rests on two crucial factors:

the weakness of the costs of transport taking into consideration variation of the production costs (with the economic direction of the term), which touches the tangible properties,
the fall of the costs of communication on a world level, which touches the diffusion under digital form of the Information S, including financial.

Exchanges of tangible properties

The first factor explains the installation of a international Division of work, since it can be profitable to make manufacture goods in a country to transport it and sell it in another. The generalization of this process to the whole of the production process (a good is manufactured in several stages corresponding to as many different countries) involves the growth of all the more strong economic interdependences as the exchanges are it. The France and the Germany are an example. This phenomenon constitutes primarily a continuation of what had been started at the 19th century.

This process finds its counterpart in the will of the richest countries to decrease the customs duties existing between them like those bearing on their products in the less industrialized countries. The negotiations of GATT then of the World Trade organization thus see a considerable reduction in the tariff barriers as well as the widening of this process to the Agriculture and the services.

Universalization of information

The great innovation of the universalization of the beginning of the 21e century is the installation of Technologies the information (TIC), in open or closed sources, they also on a worldwide scale. With the access to these tools, universalization touches as much the individuals as the States or the companies, with a very variable Perception according to the individuals.

The first effect of this technological mutation is the Financiarisation of the economy and the development of the multinational corporation and transnational. Best the Information on the cost differences between the countries indeed allows the capital to circulate without the intermediation of the Banque S by allowing the establishment of financial markets integrated into the international level.

Contrary to the purely financial factors, the universalization of the Technologies the information of the type Web, Internet and other mediae touches the individuals directly. The exposure to products Cultural S foreigners (Japanese cartoons, Indian cinema, dances of South America…) is not any more the privilege of an elite. It makes take Conscience diversity of the Culture S on the level Mondial.

Change of representation

One perceives confusedly that the universalization, which is accompanied by stakes of Sustainable development, would correspond to the beginning of a new historical cycle.

The philosopher Michel Foucault speaks about épistémè for a design of the world. Our time would correspond according to him to new a épistémè, that it qualifies Hypermodernité.

The historian Rene Rémond thinks that there exist cycles whose characteristics are the change of the representations of the world, leading to news social representations, the change of the modes of diffusion of the Information and Connaissance, the scientific reading of the fundamental texts, and the handing-over in honor of the ancient Culture…

For example, the Rebirth of the {{sp-|XV|E|and|XVI|E}} S was one period of handing-over in honor of the Greek and Latin authors and of change of design of the world (rotundity of the ground); it extended the redécouverte of the ancient Culture to the Art and the techniques, and brought the Imprimerie. The Age of Enlightenment saw a material change of representation of the world with famous “the Révolution copernician”. Our time also sees appearing different representations of the world with the new cosmological theories, the appearance of Internet, etc

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