Representation (grammar)

In Grammar, one understands by representation the fact for an element of the Discours (called the representative or temporary substitute or ), to indicate another element, unspecified (called the represented ). However, according to whether represented belongs or not to the field Linguistique, we will deal with two kinds of possible representation: either the representation of an extralinguistic element, or the representation of a linguistic element (Word, Syntagm, proposal, Sentence…) :

Le chat sleeps. Il hums.

the linguistic elements “ the cat ” and “ he ” are representatives. The nominal group “ the cat ” represents the cat of extralinguistic reality (the cat of which I speak, the cat that I can see or touch…), while the personal pronoun “ it ” represents the nominal group “ the cat ”, linguistic element, this time.

- If the representative returns to an extralinguistic element, the representation is of referential nature .

- If the representative returns to a linguistic element, the representation is of textual nature .

  • Among the various categories of words of the connected speech, some, in addition to their syntactic Function, fulfill a mission of representation : essentially, they are the Nom S, the Pronom S and some Adverbe S.

  • Among all these categories, one will note from the start the particular case consisted the possessive . Indeed, the possessive pronouns, but also, the nominal groups given by a Possessive adjective , are likely to return, not with one, but with two represented distinct: on the one hand, the owner , on the other hand, the object had :

Ma voiture is broken down. Can you lend la tienne to me?

the nominal group “ My car ” returns at the same time to the enonciator (“ I ”) and to the car of which it is question. The possessive pronoun “ holds it ” returns at the same time to the recipient (“ you ”) and to the name “ car ”, this last in addition indicating, a other car.

  • the concept of representation is an essential concept in Linguistique and Grammaire. It makes it possible, on the one hand, to better determine the difference between dimension of the language and extralinguistic dimension, on the other hand, to ensure the continuity and the progression of the text by nominal and pronominal recoveries.

Referential representation

The referential representation is a type of representation returning to an extralinguistic element, called referent (or reference ). With this first type of representation, we enter on one level the “ referential function of the language ”.

General information on the referential representation

Referent

The referent is the substance indicated by the Discours, the reality to which returns a stated, the thing which one speaks, the element of the real pointed by the Langage, the object represented by the Phrase, the objective reality which makes it possible to reach the word, in short, extralinguistic dimension referring to a given linguistic element…

One says sometimes: context or, denotation , but it seems preferable to avoid employing these two terms which have other directions in linguistics.

Representative reference frame

The representative reference frame (or nominal ) is the type of representative indicating a referent, and not a linguistic element of nature. Of course, the Embrayeur S are always referential representatives, but very representative reference frame is not necessarily a embrayor.

  • All the categories are not ready to fulfill this mission: essentially, only, the Name, the Pronoun and the Adverbe can play the part of referential representatives.

Name, representative reference frame par excellence

One can say, that among all the categories, the Nom (or, more largely, the nominal group) is the category ready to indicate the referent: indeed, one of the missions of the name, and not of least, is to name reality (or unreality), the substance (let us not forget that the names were formerly called substantive ), i.e. the people and the things which we can perceive or imagine. The linguists speak readily on this subject about the “ referential function of the name ”. It acts for the enonciator, to use expressions able to isolate (in order to identify it) a referent, with the exlusion of others.

  • Précisons however as a preliminary that all the names cannot reach the referent. The abstract names for example, ( kindness, spite, intelligence, the silly thing …) cannot it:

François is of a very great intelligence.

Seul the proper name “ François ” returns to a referent. The name “ intelligence ” is an abstract word returning only to direction and not to a referent (= “ François is very intelligent ”).

Necessary actualization of the name

But, so that name can indeed to give access to referent, so that it is in measurement to point towards reality extralinguistic, so that it can exert its mission of representative reference frame indeed, in a word, so that the referent is clearly identified, he is necessary that the name is updated , and this, mainly by means of the determining:

Les flowers which are on la table feels good.

the names “ flowers ” and “ table ” are brought up to date by the definite articles “ the ” and “ the ”.

  • Donc, only an updated nominal group makes it possible to identify the referent, in condition however that is specified the situation of stating. For example, the referents of the preceding sentence could be identified only if the situation of stating is known, or else, one will wonder of which flowers and which table it acts, etc

  • Normally, a name employed without determinant is thus not updated: there remain virtual , i.e., that he has a direction well (such as one can find it in the Dictionnaire, for example), but that its referent is completely unspecified .

Exceptional cases of actualization without determinant

Only two word groups do not need to have recourse to the determinants to be brought up to date: they are, on the one hand the proper names returning to a singular referent, on the other hand the Date S. These two groups are regarded as absolute references , i.e., that their identification does not depend on the situation of stating:

Victor Hugo was born in 1802.

the proper name “ Victor Hugo ” returns to the well-known poet, and “ 1802 ” re-examines at the year 1802. These two referents are clearly identified independently of the situation of stating (which it is not it, in this example).

  • Put besides this double case, it is necessary to also quote the stylistic device called asyndeton (or disjunction or parataxis ) consisting in removing the determinants (more precisely, articles) in an enumeration, in order to give more promptness to the sentence:

Good-bye, calf, cow, pig, brooded! (Jean of the Fountain - the Dairy one and the Pot with milk )

Actualization with determinant

It is only with the actualization of a name, that one will be fixed on the existence of his referent, and perhaps, on its identification. The actualization of a name is carried out by means of one (or several) determining, and if necessary, of a certain satellite number of . Actualization can be complete or incomplete .

  • When the determinant is an indefinite (article or determinative adjective), actualization is incomplete ; the referent is not identified yet, but it is known that there exists:

During my holidays in Rome, I became acquainted with deux American.

the name “ American ” is determined by indefinite “the two ” (numeral adjective cardinal). It is known that the Americans exist, and that they are two, but they are not identifiable: actualization is thus incomplete for the moment.

  • When the determinant is a definite (article or determinative adjective), actualization is complete ; the referent is identified or identifiable:

Les American que I met in Rome will pass to see me the next summer.

the name “ American ” is determined by definite “a the ” (article) and is supplemented by a satellite verb phrase (the relative clause “ which I met in Rome ”). Not only it is known that the Americans exist but one can in more identifying them: actualization is thus now complete.

  • One will have noted that actualization supplements of a noun phrase is carried out, on the one hand thanks to the defined determinants, on the other hand thanks to the satellites of the name core (attributive adjective, possessive phrases and determinative relative subordinate clauses):

the vase bleu  /The vase en porcelaine  /The vase qui is on the piano.

  • However, when the situation of stating allows it, this complete actualization can be only realized thanks to one definite determinant:

Rodolphe called while crying to his/her mother: “I broke le vase! ”

Rodolphe and its mother know that currently there is only one vase in the part where they are (situation of stating): the name “ vase ” is thus brought up to date by the simple presence of the definite article “ the ”. Its referent consequently is perfectly identifiable.

  • Recall that when a noun phrase is determined by a Possessive adjective (which, as a defined determinant, thus carries out an actualization supplements), this syntagm represents two elements, the owner and the had object. In addition, the possessive adjective used as a Embrayeur, has obligatorily the value, either of the first nobody (enonciator) or of the second (recipient):

Ma voiture is broken down.

the noun phrase “ my car ” is doubly a representative reference frame, on the one hand compared to the car which it indicates, on the other hand compared to the enonciator, represented by the possessive adjective “ my ”.

Sa Majesté is too good.

the noun phrase “ its Majesty ”, although determined by a possessive adjective of the third anybody (“ his ”), is well a representative reference frame since this possessive has a value of second here nobody (=  “Your Majesty… ”).

Pronoun, representative reference frame

Many a Pronom S also ensures the mission of representative reference frame.

Personal pronoun

A personal Pronom representative reference frame has obligatorily the value, either of the first nobody (enonciator) or of the second (recipient). It is a Embrayeur:

Je te speaks. Tu me speak. Tu speak to him. She me speaks. Nous let us speak about them. They speak about vous.

Possessive pronoun

A possessive Pronom representative reference frame has obligatorily the value, either of the first nobody (enonciator) or of the second (recipient). It is a embrayor also:

If your vacuum cleaner is broken down, I can lend to you mine .

the possessive pronoun “ mine ” is at the same time a textual representative suction word “ ”, and a representative reference frame of the enonciator (“ I ”).

Other pronouns

  • When he is representative reference frame, a conclusive Pronom is a deictic :

Looks at celui-là! What is it ça? All ceci intrigues me.

  • Some indefinite pronouns can be referential representatives:

Tout interests it. Nul is not supposed is unaware of the law. Give him something to be eaten. On burglarized the bank this night. Do not do with autrui what you would not like that one made you.

  • All the interrogative pronouns are referential representatives except “ which ”:

Que do you want? Qui are you? Où do you go? Pourquoi do you leave? Comment do you make? You make quoi, this evening?

  • Seuls three relative pronouns can be referential representatives: “ which ”, “ where ” and “ whoever ”. Let us note that “ which ” and “ where ” can be employed with a previous , and that only “ whoever ” is exclusively a representative reference frame:

Qui drank will drink. Où you will go, I will go. Quiconque will disobey will be punished.

Adverb, representative reference frame

They are especially the adverbs of place and time:

Today, I remain dedans because it rains. /This day, there remained dedans because it rained.

the adverb of place “ inside ”, is a representative reference frame only in the first example.

Bientôt, I will leave on vacation. /Bientôt, it was going to leave on vacation.

the adverb of time “ soon ”, is a representative reference frame, only in the first example.

Other referential representatives

There exists moreover a series of referential representatives, often invariable, such as: “ and will cetera ” (shortened in “ etc ”), “ and tutti quanti ”, “ and patati, and patata ”, “ and the remainder ”, “ and all tralala ”, “ bazaar ”, “ trick ”, “ thing ”, “ thing ”, etc: is

What it that this truc? Machin spoke to me about his wife, her life, of its work, etc.

Textual representation

The textual representation is a type of representation returning to a linguistic element. Represented belongs then to the Co-text (others Mot S of the stated).

General information on the textual representation

The goal of the textual representation is double. It acts first of all and obviously to carry out an economy (just like with the ellipse) by avoiding a repetition, but also, in very many cases, to avoid any ambiguity relating to the identification of the referent S:

My neighbor adopted a white puppy. Celui-ci barked all the night.

the conclusive pronoun “ this one ” is a textual representative of the noun phrase “ a white puppy ”. Without the textual representation, the statement would be “ My neighbor adopted a white puppy. The white puppy barked all the night. ” This one would generate a ambiguity then: are they only one, or two distinct white puppies?

Sometimes, especially in traditional grammar, the textual representative is simply called representative .

  • But, according to whether the succession of the two involved elements, reveals in first represented or the representative, the representation will be known as anaphoric (represented is then called previous ) or electrical (represented is then called consequent ).

Anaphora

A anaphora (or anaphoric representative ) is a textual representative who succeeds its represented. This first case is most usual.

Notons that the word also indicates a rhetorical figure (cf Anaphore). Example This book , I the read. In this statement, anaphoric the the finds its reference in the terms emitted upstream: " This livre".

Antecedent

A Antécédent one is represented textual preceding an anaphora.

In traditional grammar, the previous word was reserved for only represented Relative pronoun. Its direction today tends to being widened with all the represented textual ones.

I adopted a puppy. Il is very affectionate.

the personal pronoun “ it ” is an anaphora, representing the noun phrase “ a puppy ” (its antecedent).

Cataphore

A cataphore (or electrical representative ) is a textual representative who precedes and announces its represented. This second form of textual representation, representation by anticipation, is rarer.

the word also indicates a rhetorical figure (cf Cataphore).

Consequent

A consequent one is represented textual succeeding a cataphore.

Some grammairiens speak about postcédent or, of antecedent , as for the anaphora.

When I l'ai met, Pierre appeared to me in form.

the personal pronoun “ the ” is a cataphore proper name “ Pierre ”, this last while being the consequent one.

When you le see, you will ask Christophe s'il can pass at home this evening.

the personal pronoun “ the ” is a cataphore proper name “ Christophe ”; the personal pronoun “ it ” is an anaphora of this same proper name. Represented, i.e., the proper name “ Christophe ”, is consequent personal pronoun “ the ”, and the antecedent personal pronoun “ it ”.

  • Antécédent or consequent, represented can belong to any grammatical category: Name, Pronoun, Adjectival, verb phrase, Adverb, Function word, etc the representative as for him, that it is anaphora or cataphore, will be mainly, a noun, a pronoun or an adverb.

Name, textual representative

When a Name or a noun phrase is a textual representative , this one necessarily been the subject of a actualization supplements. It is thus given, either by a Definite article, or by a Demonstrative adjective , or by a Possessive adjective having value of third nobody. In addition, it is almost always about a anaphora.

When the Antécédent of this nominal anaphora is also a name or a noun phrase, several processes are at the disposal of the enonciator to carry out this one.

  • the use of the same name as the antecedent:

I adopted a puppy. Ce small chien is very affectionate.

the anaphora “ this puppy ”, having for antecedent “ a puppy ”, uses the same name, with however a different determinant (“ a ”   /“ this ”).

  • the use of a synonymous (a different word but of the same direction) with the antecedent:

I adopted a puppy. Ce clébard is very affectionate.

the anaphora “ this dog ”, having for antecedent “ a puppy ”, uses a synonymous (taken in the popular register).

  • the use of a hyperonyme (a word whose direction includes that of the initial word) antecedent:

I adopted a puppy. L' animal is very affectionate.

the anaphora “ this animal ” is a hyperonyme of its antecedent “ a puppy ”.

  • the use of a Possessive adjective having value of third nobody. In this case, the anaphora relates either on the name core (the had object), but to the owner:

I adopted a puppy. Son pelage is very soft.

the anaphora “ its peeling ” is at the same time, a representative reference frame returning to the peeling of which it is question, and an anaphora of the nominal group “ a puppy ” (its antecedent).

Rappelons that when a nominal group determined by a possessive adjective of the third anybody, has another value (first or of second nobody), it cannot be analyzed like an anaphora:

Then, Baby, one finished sa soupe?

the noun phrase “ its soup ” although introduced by a possessive adjective of the third nobody, can be regarded as an anaphora because this possessive has a value of second nobody (=  “ Then, Baby, you finished your soup ? ”.

Pronoun, textual representative par excellence

In spite of its etymology, a Pronom textual representative is not inevitably put at the place of a Nom. It can indeed replace, another pronoun, a qualifying adjective, a Verbe, a Syntagme, a Phrase, etc:

All that you said to me, I le knew already.

the personal pronoun “ the ” represents the syntagm “ all that you said to me ”.

Personal pronoun of the third nobody

A personal Pronom of the third nobody (and having value of third nobody, i.e., not constituting a Embrayeur) is normally a textual representative.

  • There exist however the two following exceptions.

- the neutral personal pronoun “ it ”, subject grammatical of the impersonal verbs, plays only one morphological part and does not represent anything:

Il snow. Il is necessary to make economies. Il can arrive that one is sick.

- the personal pronoun “ they ”, when this one has a value of indefinite Pronom (meaning =  the anonymous whole of those which have the capacity and those which carry out it, employees of an administration, a company, the manufacturers, the scientists, the doctors, the media, etc). In this case, it is about a reference frame:

Ils still did not repair the standard lamps of the entry.

Possessive pronoun

A possessive Pronom of the third nobody (and having value of third nobody, i.e., not constituting a Embrayeur) is normally a textual representative:

I lent my car to Charles: la sienne is broken down.

the possessive pronoun “ his ” constitutes a double Anaphore, since it returns to two Antécédent S, “ Charles ” and “ car ” (=  “the car of Charles”).

Then Nathalie, one borrows the toys of his sister but one does not want to lend les siens?

the possessive pronoun “ them his ”, although being with the third nobody, can be regarded as an anaphora (from the point of view of the owner) because this possessive has a value of second nobody (= “… you do not want to lend hold them ? ”). This possessive pronoun can however be considered an anaphora, but of the only point of view of the had object (the antecedent is “ toys ”).

Other pronouns

  • the conclusive pronouns, when they are not employed like deictics, are anaphoras or cataphores:

I have two friends who live in Paris: Philippe and Antoine. Celui-ci is surgeon, celui-là postal worker. I will tell you ceci: against any waiting, it is Philippe who earns the most money!

the pronouns “ this one ” and “ that one ” are anaphoras (antecedents: “ Philippe ” and “ Antoine ”) while the pronoun “ this ” is a cataphore (consequent: “ against any waiting, it is Philippe who earns the most money ”).

  • Some indefinite pronouns can be anaphoras or cataphores (“ no, other, some, the same one, no one, several, all, a …”):

These cakes have the delicious air: I would eat un well of it.

  • the numeral pronouns (or those which one can analyze like such: “ first, the second, the last, this last …”) are generally textual representatives:

to encourage its pupils, the Master promised a reward with the premier.

  • Among the interrogative pronouns, only “ which ” (and its various forms) and “ how much ” (in certain cases) can be textual representatives:

I see that you admire my paintings: lequel do you prefer?

Among all your friends, combien is ready to render this service to you?

  • the relative pronouns textual representatives (all, except “ whoever ”) are only anaphoras. Let us recall that each relative pronoun also transmits the person of previous sound :

Me qui never made of evil to a fly…

Adverb, textual representative

It is especially about the adverb of place “ there ”. In this case, it can not return to a place:

They bought a sheep-fold in Corbières. Là, they are sure to be quiet.

the adverb of place “ Là ” has for previous “ a sheep-fold in Corbières ” (it is indeed a place).

You say that you would prefer to come in other circumstances. What do you hear by là?

the adverb of place “ there ” has as an antecedent “ to come in other circumstances ” (it does not act more than one place, but of an idea).

Other textual representatives

  • Some Verbe S (called verbs vicars or verbs substitutes , which returns to other verbs) are textual representatives. It is a question especially of the verb “ of making ”, but also, of the verbs “ to have ”, “ to be ”, “ to go ”, “ to manufacture ”, etc:

Paul is satisfied with his new work; for Eliane it in va not in the same way.   /To criticize, here all that it knows faire.  /I see that you are well; for me, it in est in the same way.

the verb “ to go ” represents the idea “ to be satisfied with its new work ”. The verb “ to make ” represents the verb “ to criticize ”. The verb “ to be ” represents well the idea “ be ”.

  • adverbs of assertion (“ yes, if, undoubtedly …”), of negation (“ not, that nenni, not …”) or of doubt (“ perhaps, which know? probably …”) by using the mechanism of the ellipse, represents in fact the part of stated which is removed:

-   You come? -   Oui.

For “-   You come? -   Yes, I come . ”

  • the conjunction “ that ” can be employed like anaphora of any other subordinating conjunction :

When you return and que you will have rested, I will explain you all the business.

For “ When you return and when you rest …”

  • There exist moreover some other textual substitutes, often invariable, such as: “ idem ” (shortened in “ id. ”), “ homologous ”, “ (a) ”, etc:

the children were bored and the parents, idem.  /During this meeting, the Minister for the economy and that of transport on the European occasion to meet their homologs.

the word “ idem ” represents the verb “ were bored ”. The homologous name “ ” represents the noun phrase “ the Minister for the economy and that of transport”.

Textual representative and referent

In the textual representation, when represented (the antecedent or the consequent , according to the case) itself returns to a referent (what is not systematic), representing it (the cataphore or the anaphora, according to the case) “it also returns”, but in an indirect way, “with this same referent”, by rebound to some extent. The two referents, that of the representative and that of represented (the linguists speak then about coréférence ), can then be identical or different:

When you return and que you will have rested, I will explain you all the business.

the antecedent “ when ” does not return to any referent; therefore, the anaphora “ that ”, either.

I adopted a puppy. Il is very affectionate.

the antecedent “ a puppy ” returns to a referent puppy which I adopted; therefore, the anaphora “ It ” returns to the same referent.

These cakes have the delicious air: I would eat un well of it.

the antecedent “ these cakes ” returns to a referent cakes which I show; the anaphora “ a ” returns to a referent partially different from that of its antecedent cake among those about which one speaks.

I lent my car to Charles: la sienne is broken down.

the antecedent “ my car ” returns to the car of the enonciator; the anaphora “ his ” returns to the car of Charles (it is indeed of a car, but not same).

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