Radioactive waste

a radioactive waste is a Matière Radioactive classified like waste. The radioactive waste results primarily from the use of the nuclear energy: Nuclear medicine, energy production, marine propulsion or manufacture of atomic weapons. Other radioactive waste comes from nonnuclear industries (extraction of rare earths for example) or from the last use of radioactive elements in traditional industry (lightning conductors with americium, painting with tritium, etc).

Most of the radioactive waste come from the nuclear industry which uses and generates radioactive matters in the various stages of the Cycle of nuclear fuel. The strategy of cycle differs according to the countries and the periods: the irradiated fuel (whose uranium and plutonium) either are regarded as a matter which may undergo beneficiation (recycling partial of the fissile isotopes) or like a waste (direct storage).

Nature and classification

Definition

In France, according to the definition of the law, a radioactive waste is a matter Radioactive not being able to be re-used or reprocessed (under the technical requirements and economic of the moment).

Classification

The system of classification of the radioactive waste does not depend directly on the way in which waste is generated. They are classified in particular according to the two following criteria:

duration of their radioactive activity, which perhaps calculated starting from the Half-life and which defines the duration of harmful effect
the level of Radioactivité, which conditions the dangerosity of the products.

Other criteria of classification utilize the chemical dangerosity and the physicochemical nature of waste.

From the internationally recognized criteria, various types of waste were defined by the Nuclear Autorité of Safety, each one requiring a different management:

waste of high activity (HA) and waste of average activity and with long life (MAVL) : they are mainly waste resulting from the heart of the engine, highly radioactive during hundreds of thousands, even million years.
waste of weak and average activity with short life (FMA-VC) : in fact mainly technological waste (gloves, combinations, tools, etc) was contaminated during their use in power station or in an installation of the cycle. Their harmfulness does not exceed 300 years.
waste of very weak (TFA) activity: they are mainly activated materials coming from the dismantling of nuclear sites: reinforce, rubble, concrete… They are not very radioactive but awaited volumes are more important than those of the other categories.
waste of weak activity to long life (FA-VL) : they are mainly radiferous waste and waste graphites. Radiferous waste results from the industry of the Radium and its derivatives, but also of the extraction of rare earths.

Production

Waste of the nuclear production

Fission products

During the irradiation out of engine, the fission of a Uranium 235 atom generates two unstable atoms: fission products (PF). The atomic numbers of the fission products are distributed statistically in two intervals:

from 78 to 109 nucleons, for the first part,
from 125 to 155, for the other part.

The statistical distribution of the fission products depends on several factors: composition of the fuel (uranium enrichment, plutonium content), spectrum and neutron flux, etc For a standard engine REFERENCE MARK, 97% of the fission products are distributed between the intervals:

from 84 to 105 nucleons for the first part,
from 129 to 149 for the other part.

The fissioned uranium atom and the neutron causing fission initially comprise 92 protons and 144 (143+1) neutrons, including two and half are emitted (on average) almost instantaneously during fissions. Consequently the two unstable atoms formed during fission on the whole contain 92 protons and 141,5 neutrons (on average), which are distributed between the two formed unstable atoms. One can see thus that the two formed unstable atoms contain an excessive number of neutrons compared to the stable radioisotopes (between three and five neutrons “in excess” compared to stability).

Once the first last moments post fission where “delayed” neutrons known as can be emitted (a few seconds after fission), the unstable bodies formed during fission gradually will rejoin the situation of stability by successive emissions of electrons (beta radiation) accompanied by electromagnetic radiations corresponding to the various energy levels from the electronic procession of the aforesaid atoms.

During the rallying towards the stable situation - except extremely rare cases - the full number of nucleons of the initially formed unstable atoms does not change; only the number of protons increases by successive transformation of neutron into proton with emission of an electron each time and release of energy in the form of gamma ray.

These considerations explain why the PF are:

very generally transmitting beta
very often transmitting gamma
seldom transmitting alpha and only in resultant of a disintegration of transmitter beta leading to a quasi stable body existing with the state of nature itself transmitting alpha

Fissions of the plutonium 239 formed in the engines starting from uranium 238 do not produce exactly the same proportions of atoms of the various types as in case of Uranium 235, even if the orders of magnitude are coarsely the same ones. This explains why it is often very difficult to simply explain the nature and especially the quantities of bodies formed by fission in the whole of the engines and for all energies (or wears) of fuels used.

Taking into account the elements above the fission products which are - in the long term - contained in glasses of geological storage are the following:

Environ 73% of the total of the atoms formed during the fission of the PF is stable solid bodies or residues of the bodies of period lower than 10 years which disappear quickly on scale historically gérable and whose list is not traced here.

Environ 10% of the total of the atoms formed during fission is natural radioisotopes of period higher than 100 billion years (They can be regarded as stable bodies de facto). It is:

neodymium 144 for approximately 3,2% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter alpha
zirconium 96 for approximately 3,2% of the atoms initially formed by fission doubtless transmitting béta
rubidium 87 for approximately 1,36% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter béta
samariums 147 and 149 for approximately 1,85% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter alpha

Although transmitting alpha for some these bodies are not especially awkward because:

Their activity is very weak
the heat emission and of helium is also very weak

Environ 7% of the total of the atoms formed during fission is radioisotopes with mean length of life of period higher than 10 years and lower than 100 years; it is:

cesium 137 of period 30,2 years for approximately 3,2% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta gamma
strontium 90 of period 28,1 years for approximately 2,9% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta gamma
the krypton 85 (which is a gas) of period 10,8 years for approximately 0,2% to 0,7% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta, does not find in geological but separate storage with the reprocessing plant of La Hague (*)
samarium 151 of period 93 years for approximately 0,24% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta
Enfin, to be complete, one must mention tin 121 metastable period 76 years and cadmium 113 metastable period 14 years which are produced with height of less than 0,01% of the initially formed PF.

Only samarium 151 period 93 years (0,24% of the atoms initially formed by fission) and metastable tin 121, period 76 years (less than 0,01%), can be regarded as in extreme cases of a human historical management.

(*) Krypton 85 is a gas rejection of the factory of La Hague. For this reason, it was the subject obviously of a rather significant number of precise studies and measurement of the quantities produced by fission and rejected which lead to rejections significantly lower than the quantities than one can deduce from the fission yields. According to the fission yields, the quantity of krypton 85 produced during fissions would be thus appreciably of 68.000 * 0,002 * 85/116,8 = 100 kg/an coarsely while at the same time the accounting of the gas rejections oddly the assessment does not buckle.

http://www.laradioactivite.com/fr/site/pages/RejetsEffluents.htm

http://www.sfen.org/fr/societe/environnement/rejetsrad.htm

- Approximately 10% of the total of the atoms formed during fission are radioisotopes with very long life which represent truly the residual radioactivity in the long run due to the fission products, they are 7; they are

zirconium 93 of period 1,5 million years for approximately 3,2% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta, knowing that a complementary quantity definitely smaller is formed by neutron irradiation of the zirconium of the sheaths including one negligible part is associated with the fission products because of the process of shearing of the sheaths carried out with the factory of La Hague
cesium 135 of period 3 million years for approximately 3,2% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta
technetium 99 of period 212.000 years for approximately 3,0% of the initially formed atoms transmitting beta
iodine 129 of period 18 million years for approximately 0,49% of initially formed atoms transmitting beta
tin 126 of period 100.000 years for approximately 0,10% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta
palladium 107 of period 18 million years for approximately 0,05% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta
selenium 79 of period 65.000 years for approximately 0,02% of the atoms initially formed by fission transmitter beta

For these bodies of which the lifespan is without relationship with the historical scales of time, the current nominal solution consists to confine them in an adapted matrix (mixed with the other PF above) and to place them at geological storage. Economic surveys and evaluations are in hand to examine under which conditions, it is possible to transmute these 7 bodies into body with short life.

Minor actinides

During the irradiation out of engine, the uranium atoms (in particular isotope 238) of fuel can capture a neutron without undergoing fission. These captures, often followed radioactive decrease béta, lead to an increase in the atomic number. It is formed transuranians then: minor plutonium and actinides (neptunium - americium - curium). The qualification of minors returns account owing to the fact that these elements are present in good less great proportions than major actinides: uranium and plutonium.

The minor actinides with mean length of life constitute approximately 35% of the total:

americium 241 (period 458 years) for approximately 32% of the total of AMin formed,
curium 244 (period 17,6 years) for approximately 3,1% of the total of AMin formed,
metastable americium 242 (period 152 years) for approximately 0,1% of the total of AMin formed.

These elements strongly contribute to the thermal release of irradiated fuel. They are radioactive alpha and thus emit helium.

In addition AMin with long life for approximately 65% of the total which are the following:

neptunium 237 transmitter alpha of period 2,14 million years for approximately 50% of the total of AMin formed
americium 243 transmitter alpha of period 7.370 years for approximately 14,5% of the total of AMin formed,
curium 245 transmitter alpha of period 9.300 years for approximately 0,17% of the total of AMin formed,
curium 246 transmitter alpha of period 5.500 years for approximately 0,03% of the total of AMin formed.

Generally AMin represent the bodies which pose the principal problems at the geological level of storage for the following reasons:

transmitting alpha, therefore strong toxicity if the body enters the chain of alive the
important heat emission; the majority of the emissions alpha of actinides are it with an energy raised about 5,5 MeV

Separation

The chemical plant of La Hague receives fuel irradiated coming from the generating power stations

After dissolution of fuel in the nitric acid, it separates:

on a side uranium (all mixed uranium isotopes)
on another side plutonium (all mixed plutonium isotopes)
on another side the remainder of the other bodies (the radioactive waste)

One can see thus that the PF and AMin is thus mixed. In the same way among the PF there are a mixture of radioactive bodies and bodies stable.

However, from the point of view of an improvement of the nominal management of AMin, for a few years, the factory of La Hague has been made gradually able to separate minor actinides from the PF.

This will allow

to improve operation of geological storage by withdrawing the producing bodies of heat (AMin)
to plan to fission these bodies out of fast engine

More generally besides the separation chemical of the bodies other than uranium and plutonium will make it possible in the long run to improve management of waste in question, even can be the valorization of certain bodies currently not used.

Waste of research

Waste of the medical sector

Waste of nonnuclear industry

Management

Geological storage

The solution " nominale" current to become to it radioactive waste HAVL is thus the PF and AMin consists in storing them with great depth (300 to 500 m) in galleries dug in a layer geological stable, dense and it more possible - tight (granite, the pumice tuff or clay as that is envisaged in France) It is estimated that the process of vitrification should be able to ensure the containment of the matters during 10.000 years, but in any event the models of migrations of the radioactive bodies do not utilize this containment " artificiel" (containers), only the natural rock is considered.

http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockage_des_d%C3%A9chets_radioactifs_en_couche_g%C3%A9ologique_profonde

The immersion of the radioactive waste at sea

During years 1950, part of waste coming from the European and American nuclear plants were thrown starting from ships in the Atlantic and between the Anglo-Norman islands and the course of La Hague.

Indeed, during a first phase of the development of the use of nuclear energy the idea prevailed that broad dispersion in the environment of part of the radioactive waste of weak activity could be a solution for the long run.

Although this option was strongly discussed with the center even of the community of the engineers of the nuclear power and even during its implementation; until 1982, more than 100.000 tons of waste radioactive were poured in concrete containers, at the bottom of the oceans Atlantic mainly by a dozen country of which mainly:

England (76,55%),
Switzerland (9,64%),
the USA (7,67%),
Belgium (4,63%)
the USSR. (nonknown proportion).
France (0,77%) ceased these underwater deposits in 1973

Certain containers were to remain tight approximately 500 years (whereas waste is active thousands of years)… times necessary to bring back their activity to a value such as their dispersion in the sea does not pose a problem. That being a part of them are fissured or opened 29 years after their immersion.

It should be noted that this immersed waste represented the totality of waste by no means and that it forever be question that this criticizable practice is the nominal practice for the whole of the radioactive waste.

May 12th, 1993, the contracting parties of the International convention of London voted the total ban of the discharge at sea of radioactive waste. Since, waste is managed in the majority of the cases in centers of storage.

The sending of the radioactive waste in space

The sending of the radioactive waste of type C (waste HAVL = High Long life Activity); i.e. the fission products (PF) and the actinides minor (AMin) in space is a possibility sometimes evoked to eliminate them from the biosphere.

However this solution remains theoretical enough for the following reasons:

This could possibly relate to only the PF and AMin

the price is a major hurdle: a rocket ARIANE V costs 150 million euros

quantities: 340 tonnes/an (with conditioning and packing) for only France, much more than the capacity of a current rocket (as example, the rocket ARIANE V puts 10 tons maximum into solar orbit, that is to say 15 million packed euros per ton of waste and 34 lancements/an); however today the cost of geological major storage is of 150.000 euros per ton, therefore approximately 100 times less expensive

the risk to see packing falling down in the event of incident after launching is not negligible, but there is especially the risk to see the rocket exploding with launching and bringing the containers up to very strong temperature: on this point one evoked the fact that one could in the long run imagine rockets with propellent nonable to explode (rocket with water vaporized by laser heating since the ground)

need for finding orbits not encumbered able to receive the train of waste in question sent in the Sun (or Mercury?) knowing that today the obstruction of space by waste of various nature poses already a problem

Nevertheless, certain space probes already carry with them fuel to get energy to them, following the example Cassini, New Horizon and Ulysses. plutonium 50kg (to 82% of Pu 238) is thus in space, without hope of return.

The sending of waste in space is a remote prospect, having to deal with certain number of difficulties, in particular related to the cost of such a company.

Germany

The search for a geological site of storage is in hand. Various experiments took place with Gorleben (layer of salt), Konrad (iron mine), Mine of Adze.

Australia

Australia developed Synroc to contain the nuclear waste. Synroc is a kind of rock synthetic ( Synthetic Rock ), invented in 1978 by professor Ted Ringwood of Australian National University. This technology is used by the American army to confine its waste.

http://www.arpansa.gov.au/ (Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, federal agency) Radioactive National Proposed Waste Repository (version filed by Internet Files)

Belgium

According to the estimates based on the available data at January 1st, 2001, the quantity of conditioned waste that ONDRAF will have to manage from here 2070 is estimated with following volumes:

70.500 m ³ of waste with weak activity and short duration of life;
8.900 m ³ of waste of average activity;
from 2.100 to 4.700 m ³ of waste high and very high activity.

For waste of weak activity, ONDRAF studied, with local partnerships, projects of storage on the surface or geological layer (Mol, Dessel, Fleurus). After a vote of the town council of Fleurus which put an end to the process of consultation engaged in this commune, the government decided on June 23rd, 2006 to retain the candidature of the commune of Dessel (Stora Partnership).

For waste incompatible with a storage on the surface (long life of life and high activity), a geological storage in a layer of clay is being studied. An underground laboratory exists with Mol since a score of years. The financing of major storage rests on the distinction of a fixed cost and a variable cost. The variable cost is due at the time of the production of waste. On the other hand, the fixed cost is financed, whatever the quantity of waste produced in fine, by the mechanism of contractual guarantee. This careful approach ensures, on the one hand the capacity of financing of the whole of produced waste on date, on the other hand the absence of financial impact of waste to be produced.

Canada

Since 1984, experimentation in the laboratory of the Lake Bonnet (granite) which should be soon closed.

http://www.nfwbureau.gc.ca/francais/View.asp?x=1
http://www.llrwmo.org/fr/home.html
http://www.aecl.ca/indexfrench1.asp?layid=2

The United States

Very many sites of storage on the surface for waste of weak activity are in operation in the USA (see chart).

A geological storage in a layer of salt (WIPP - Waste Insulation Pile Seedling ) is in service since 1999 for waste of average military activity of origin (Carlsbad - New Mexico).

The United States studies the possibility of final hiding of worn fuels (strongly radioactive waste or at long life of life) in the pumice tuff of the site of Yucca Mountain (Nevada). This site could receive approximately 70.000 tons.

In the United States, the financing is carried out through the additional amount of a government stock by a royalty on the price of electricity. This die-responsabilise way of financing the producer of waste by transferring some the load on the state. Within this framework, the state is guaranteeing financing of the management of waste.

http://www.nrc.gov
http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov
Waste Insulation Pile Seedling
http://www.iscors.org

France

The French law of June 28th, 2006 distinguishes the radioactive materials from the radioactive waste. The rejections of liquid and gas effluents are governed by specific authorizations. The management of the mining residues, which are not radioactive waste but raise of the mineral right, is it also framed by standards of protection against radiation of the public. In the framework of the strategy of reprocessing fuel used, the Uranium depleted, uranium known as " of traitement" (or of reprocessing), MOX used, etc are not waste but matters which may undergo beneficiation.

In France, according to nuclear industry, the production of radioactive waste French is from approximately 1 kg per annum and per capita. According to the Network To leave the Nuclear power, it would be necessary to multiply by 50,100 or more the quantity announced to approach of about size reality. This estimate is based on another definition of the radioactive waste, including matters which are not classified like waste in comparison with the French law: worn fuel (plutonium and uranium), depleted uranium and mining residues. With regard to waste of high activity, the process of selective separation, via the treatment La Hague, then of vitrification produces parcels of waste of a volume of about 100 m ³ per annum in the French case, with a reduction of a factor of at least 5 compared to the concepts being studied in the case of direct storage of worn fuels.

Waste high and average activity with long life

Waste of high activity in solid and stable chemical form (generally of oxides) is blocked in a vitreous matrix . They release from heat and are thus stored in installations ventilated on the sites of La Hague and Marcoule.

France did not define yet management style of long run for waste in high activity and long life. The Loi Battles of December 30th, 1991 organized research until 2006 studying three research orientations:

chemical separation and Transmutation,
storage in deep geological layer final or reversible,
storage of long life on the surface or subsurface.

Storage in deep geological layer is studied by the National agency for the management of the radioactive waste (Andra). The law of June 28th, 2006 confirms this role of Andra and asks him to study the industrial startup of a reversible storage in geological layer in 2025.

Until 2006, the two other research orientations were entrusted by the law Bataille to ECA. The law of June 28th, 2006 transfers to Andra the responsibility for the studies on storage.

Waste of weak and average activity

Waste FMA is intended to be stored in France on a site of surface. They are initially solidified to avoid the dispersion of the radioactivity, then coated with concrete, resin or bitumen to avoid any possibility of chemical reaction and to block waste in its container. They are finally placed in containers metal or out of concrete, of good mechanical resistance and easy to handle without specific measures of protection against radiation.

The containers are stored on the surface in two sites of Andra, arranged for the storage of this waste:

the Center of storage of the English Channel located on the commune of Beaumont-La Hague, which accommodated the parcels of waste as from 1969, and is filled since 1994. It is today in phase of monitoring;
the Center of storage of the Paddle located on the commune of Soulaines-Dhuys, which accommodates since 1992 French waste for approximately 40 years. Its storage capacity is of a million cubic meters, the barrels being crushed to decrease volumes. It is today in production run.

Other French nuclear sites contain radioactive waste of this category: Cadarache, Pierrelatte, etc

Waste of very weak activity

Waste TFA, mainly resulting from the Dismantling, is compacted and conditioned in big-bags or steel caissons. They are arranged in cells dug in the Argile, whose bottom is arranged to collect the possible water infiltrated throughout all storage.

Since October 2003, certain parcels of waste TFA are stored on the surface in the Center of storage of Morvilliers.

Other nuclear sites hold this waste, in particular the stopped power stations of Brennilis and Super-Phenix.

Radiferous waste and waste graphites

Waste graphites is primarily waste (not produced per hour presents) which will come from the dismantling of first power stations ECA and EDF (die graphite gas). This waste is not very active but has one long lifespan. In addition, radiferous waste is transmitting of Radon, which implies constraints of exploitation (ventilation in particular) during their treatment . The study of the conditioning of radiferous waste and graphites is in hand.

It is planned to store this waste in subsurface (a few meters of depth under the natural level, established in an argillaceous formation of very low permeability) or in-depth (old mine shaft for example).

While waiting, this waste is stored on the spot, in particular in the stopped engines of type Natural Uranium Graphite Gas of Chinon, Marcoule, the St. Lawrence and Bugey.

Production and management of the radioactive waste in France

Producers and holders of radioactive waste in France

The production of radioactive waste is mainly the fact of nuclear industry, in front of research, the nonnuclear army and industries: medical irradiation, mining extraction, coal stations, etc waste of high activity to long life are primarily produced by nuclear industry.

In France: more than 1000 sites holders of radioactive waste are indexed (including all the categories described herebefore). This waste is distributed on the following sites:

deposits: centers of Andra storage, storages of nuclear industry or the army;
nuclear installations in exploitation: centers of studies, nuclear plants, factories of the fuel cycle;
nuclear installations which are not any more in activity;
establishments of National defense: centers of studies, production or experimentation of the deterrent power;
establishments using of the radionuclides: fields medical, industrial and seeks;
industrial plants handling or having handled radioactive materials.

Principle of management of the radioactive waste in France

France did not define yet management style for all waste. The Loi Battles of December 30th, 1991 organized research until 2006, year during which a new law (June 28th) affirms the complementarity of storage and storage in deep geological layer.

Pursuant to the Principle pollutant-payer, the management of waste is responsibility for the producer. Pursuant to circular DGS/SD 7 D/DHOS/E 4 n° 2001-323 of the July 9th 2001, the radioactive waste are the subject of a request for removal with the IRSN (Institut of Protection against radiation and Nuclear Safety). To allow their assumption of responsibility, the requests of the producers of waste are accompanied by a detailed description of the characteristics of waste itself and its conditioning.

Andra (National agency for the management of the radioactive waste) designs and exploits the dies of storage adapted to each category of radioactive waste. That results in the collection, conditioning, the storage and the monitoring of waste. Since the law of June 28th, 2006, Andra also has charges storage with it with long life. The management of waste and the radioactive materials is the national plan object re-examined every three years: the national plan of inventory management and radioactive waste (PNGMDR).

Economic aspects of the management of the radioactive waste in France

The Court of Auditors returned in January 2005 a report/ratio on “the dismantling of nuclear installations and the management of the radioactive waste”. This report/ratio is interested in particular in the financing of management of the radioactive waste. The conclusions are moderate between the three large producers of French waste. The Court of Auditors indicates that EDF lays out with the handover date of the report/ratio only of one “embryo of credits dedicated compared to the mass to finance”. The financings of ECA show gaps, while Areva seems to anticipate the future loads correctly.

In France, waste TFA and FMA-VC is dealt with by Andra in centers of storage of surface. The costs of construction, exploitation and closing of these centers are evaluated by Andra, then reported to the quantity of stored waste. These costs are revalued periodically. For the waste of very weak activity stored in the center of storage of Morvilliers, the cost rises with 270 euros per ton. According to the Court of Auditors, this tariff could rise in the case of the assumption of responsibility of waste of more complex nature. Waste of weak and average activity with short life is dealt with in the centers of the English Channel until 1994 and the Paddle since. The storage costs are into 2002 of 2.529 euros per cubic meter the fixed charges account for approximately 80% of the total costs.

The financing of the management of this waste is carried out by a payment of the producer of waste in Andra at the time of the delivery of the parcel. However, under the terms of the respect of the principle pollutant-payer, Andra does not become owner of waste. At the end of the contract for more than one year, the revaluation of the cost of storage led to a revision of the cost to the parcel and if necessary for complementary payments for the already transferred parcels.

The financing of the management of waste with long life is carried out through the constitution of provisions dedicated within the accounts of the producers of waste. This way of financing makes it possible to respect fully the principle pollutant-payer, but made rest the guarantee of the financing on the producers of waste. Until 2006, the checking of the adequacy between the amount and the nature of the provisions and the cost of storage are carried out by the Court of Auditors. For this reason, in 2005 it publishes a report with the following conclusions:

the companies of the Areva group have a level of dedicated credits, which one can consider sufficient;
EDF, because of its debt, has only one embryo of credits dedicated compared to the mass to finance and all rests on its capacity to have sufficient credits; specific
at the ECA, two funds were created: funds for the civil installations by assignment of part of the dividends and capital of Areva and funds for the defense installations: the first will have to be adjusted with the needs, while the second is always in gestation.

The law of June 28th, 2006 on the durable management of the matters and radioactive waste specifies the methods of costing of storage, of the amount of the provisions to be made up by the producers of waste as well as the methods of control. The revaluation of the provisions is carried out every three years, with an annual update if necessary. The cost of storage is evaluated by Andra which provides an estimate to the Minister. The conversion of this cost into provisions to be passed to the assessment producers of waste is carried out by their auditors. A National Commission of evaluation of the financing of the loads of dismantling of basic nuclear installations and management of worn fuels and radioactive waste are instituted by the law of June 28th, 2006 with the responsibility to ensure the control of the provisions of the producers of waste. The constitution of the panel of credits dedicated to the cover of the loads of dismantling and management of the radioactive waste will have to be realized within 5 year after the promulgation of the law.

Radioactive waste products by the nuclear electrical production of origin in France

Preliminary important: One speaks in the continuation about this paragraph only about waste born about the electrical production starting from fission about uranium; they coarsely account for 90% of the whole of the radioactive waste produced in France.

To stick to the case of France (the situation differs relatively little one country to the other when nuclear energy is used to produce electricity) one distinguishes three great groups from waste generated by the electrical production of nuclear origin:

waste resulting directly from the process of atomic fission itself (known as also waste of the type C);
technological waste related to the process of atomic fission (known as also waste of the B) type;
other various waste of origin (known as also waste of a) type.

Waste resulting directly from the atomic fission itself and other large atoms affected by the neutron reactions

One calls also this waste waste of the type C .

The nuclear reaction of atomic fission of Uranium 235 in chain generates:

on the one hand, and mainly, the fission products (PF) which constitute at the same time the principal part and most dangerous of waste of the processes;
on the other hand, and in definitely less quantity, a certain number of “large not fissioned atoms” (formed in the engines by neutron capture by the “large atoms” which are there - “missed” fissions to some extent) that minor actinides are called (one them known as minors because

on the one hand they exist in quantity definitely less than uranium and plutonium (major actinides)
in addition, one cannot only make some in the actual position of the techniques).

In France, the quantity of the radioactive waste “of process” - for the electrical production - is the following one:

fission product (PF): clear quantity = 68 tonnes/an (1,1 g/an/habitant);
minor actinides (AMin): clear quantity = 1,85 tonne/an (0,035 g/an/habitant).

Once conditioned in glass and packed the produced clear mass is coarsely five times higher, that is to say:

PF = 340 tonnes/an (5,5 g/an/habitant);
AMin = 9,3 tonnes/an (0,15 g/an/habitant).

Volumes of PF and actinides vary between 100 and 240 m ³ /an, according to the performances of the process of vitrification and the size of packing, are a maximum of 4 cm ³ /an/habitant.

For the same quantity of produced electrical energy, even if technological advancements (increase in the thermodynamic output of the engines; transmutation of waste into stable bodies; optimization of conditioning) are possible to reduce a little the quantities above, the quantities of waste of the process strictly known as cannot be significantly reduced; the packed “conditioned” quantities undoubtedly can the being more but undoubtedly not beyond of a factor two or three compared to the currently produced quantities.

“Technological” waste directly related to the process of fission

This waste, also called waste of the type B , is generally rather strongly radioactive.

They are generally metal structures very strongly activated by the fact that they is inside the heart of the engine or with its direct vicinity, therefore in a very intense neutron flow during operation. The total volume of this waste in the final situation of conditioning (final packing included/understood) is about 4500 m ³ /an (75 cm ³ /an/habitant); the mass, calculated with an estimated density of 2,5, is of 1800 tonnes/an (30 g/an/habitant). Although efforts are made and feasible, it seems excluded that one can divide by more than three to five these quantities.

The typical examples of this waste are the zirconium tubes, in which is the fuel of the power stations when it is out of engine, and the feet and head of combustible matter of the power stations, made typically out of stainless steel.

In the case of France, the nitric acid used with the factory of La Hague dissolves fuel and the majority of the PF after passage of combustible matter in the shear of head of the factory (“axe straw”). The zirconium of the “hulls” - pieces of the sheared zirconium tubes, whose typical pace is that of a badly cut macaroni - and the stainless steel of the ends are thus separate not fissioned PF and atoms remaining.

Currently, the hulls are put in bulk in barrels and the ends are rather massive, so that the volume of the hulls and ends is certainly of the same order of magnitude, even slightly lower (a factor 1,7 seems a maximum), that the volume of combustible matter before shearing. Taking into account packing, the total volume of conditioned waste is undoubtedly slightly higher than the volume of the fuel assembly before reprocessing.

Later on, one can imagine to compact by pressing, to even amalgamate zirconium, in order to strongly gain in volume. The question raised by the zirconum is complicated by the fact that the zirconium 93, produced in small quantity by activation of the sheaths but also a little by fission, is a radioactive product at very long life of life (1,53 million years).

Other various technological waste related to the operation of the power stations and factories

This waste, also called waste of the type has , are consisted of the chemicals, behaviors of work, tools, concretes scrap, etc Très various, some are very slightly radioactive but are classified as waste because they come from a site, a building or a room considered to contain radioactivity (one calls that “zoning waste” on the nuclear sites).

In France, volume is currently of 15.000 m ³ /an (250 cm ³ /an/habitant), whereas it was double a few years ago. The mass borders 56.400 tonnes/an, that is to say 940 g/an/habitant. These production reductions were possible because of the large efforts made by EDF to reduce the volume and the mass of this waste, but it is difficult to fix a minimal threshold. Moreover, by the troubles of exploitation can increase the quantities of waste transitorily.

Fission products (PF) and minor actinides (AMin) generated in the nuclear reactors

Quantities of fission products generated in the French generating nuclear reactors (masses and volumes)

The quantity of PF produced by the French generating engines is of 1,06 gram of fissioned heavy atoms (mainly of Uranium 235). That accounts for approximately 1 MWjour of produced heat, that is to say approximately 58 (sections) X 1000 (MW on average per section) * 3 (output = 0,33) * 365,25 (jours/an) X 1,06 = 67.628.000 grams of heavy atoms fissioned, which makes 68 tons of fission products per annum (1,1 g/an/habitant).

Once conditioned in glass and packed out of tight stainless steel container for geological storage, the produced total mass is coarsely six to seven times higher, that is to say 440 tonnes/an (7,4 G /an/habitant). This estimate is raising and other more precise evaluations rather give 4,5 g/an/habitant, conditioning and packing included/understood. However, the order of magnitude is correct.

On the basis of average density of three, volume corresponding is of 150 m ³ /an, that is to say 0,0025 /an/habitant DM ³.

Quantities of minor actinides (AMin) produced in the French generating nuclear reactors (masses and volumes)

The minor actinides represent coarsely

masses approximately 2,8% of the unit of them PF + AMin

of many formed atoms approximately 1,4% of the total PF + AMin

That is to say thus clear quantity = 0,028 * 68 = 1,85 g/an/habitant tonne/an = 0,031

Once conditioned in glass and packed, the produced total mass is coarsely 6à7 time higher is thus:

Minor actinides conditioned for geological storage = 12,1 tons/year = 0,2 g/an/habitant

Produced volume is confused with that corresponding to the PF evoked above

Volume of waste

In France, the scenario privileged in 2006 by EDF is the reprocessing of the whole of the matters which may undergo beneficiation, short-term in the form of MOX and of RUE (Uranium of Reprocessing), later on in advanced nuclear reactors subjected to R & D. Within this framework, Andra produces the inventory of waste at the end of 2004.

In France, the inventory of Andra evaluates these stocks (at the end of 2004).

the matters used for manufacture of the weapons or under strategic stocks are covered by secrecy-defense. They are thus not listed in the French inventory carried out by Andra.

Finland

Site of Onkalo experimentation,
granitic Site of Olkiluoto.

Japan

Two laboratories are under development:

on the island of Honshū (crystalline geology),
on the island of Hokkaido (nonargillaceous sediments).

Slovakia

Slovakia has government stocks for the dismantling of nuclear installations and the management of worn fuel and the radioactive waste. This funds is fed by the owner from the nuclear plants who pours each year 6,8% of the selling price of the electricity marketed by the power stations and 350.000 Sk per MW of electric output installed. The ministry for the Nation's economy is responsible for the funds. Way of calculating of the royalty led to a dependence of the amount of the annual additional amount at the price of electricity.

Sweden

The adopted solution is that of geological storage in the granite. Underground laboratories exist (HRL of Aspo).

A center of storage in subsurface is in service since 1985 (CLAB).

and * http://www.skb.se/

Switzerland

The five Swiss nuclear plants produce 700 kg of plutonium annually. Switzerland sends its fuel irradiated in the factories of reprocessing of La Hague in France and Sellafield in England.

NAGRA exploits since 2001 an installation of storage to Würenlingen (ZWILAG) and considers a geological storage in the granite or clay.

A research laboratory is in service in the clay of the Mount-Terri in the Jura.

http://www.nagra.ch
underground Laboratory of the Mount-Terri

Historical and various elements

Rejections at sea of the reprocessing plants

The rejections of radioactive wastes of the factories of the La Hague and of Sellafield constitute a radioactive pollution as well by the quantity of radioactivity slackened in environnment as by the nature of the rejected radioelements.

The natural engine of Oklo

The natural Nuclear reactor of Oklo in Gabon functioned naturally during thousands of years, and produced radioactive elements similar to those which one finds in irradiated fuel (transuranic, fission products in particular).

It is interesting to note that the fission products and actinides produced during the operation of these natural engines practically remained in the same place during several hundreds of million years and this, in spite of the equatorial climate and the variations of the ground water. One can thus suppose that a site of geological storage selected good ensures a correct containment in the long run.

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