Plebs

History

Birth

The plebs is born from the secession of 494 av. J. - C., when part of the civic body leaves the town of Rome, whereas the convocation by the Consul S was imminent to face a foreign war, and refuses to return in spite of the prayers of the patricians. It is thus about a strike of the war.

This secession is probably related to an economic crisis, the Roman historian Tite-Live calling upon the slavery for debts of many poor citizens. It is besides a similar situation which caused the reforms of Solon in Greece. One can also evoke a political disappointment. Indeed, since the establishment of the Republic, the example of the Athenian democracy (reform of Clisthène) was known, and had raised hopes disappointed by the installation of the oligarchical Republic, injuring the political rights of part of the people (within the meaning of the Roman populus , i.e. the whole of the citizens).

After being themselves given institutions and having lent oath, the new political entity reinstates the Cité. This permanent revolution legalized , according to the expression of Mommsen manages to balance the oligarchical institutions of Rome, during one century of fights, between the daily pressure of the intercessio tribunician and the threat of the secession, of the strike of the war and the defense of the city, when the plebs is withdrawn on the Aventin.

The law of the XII Tables

The light Valeriæ Horatiæ

The laws Valeriæ Horatiæ are the obvious result, and immediate (in 449 av. J. - C.), of the law of the XII Tables. Subjected to the vote by the consuls Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius, they are the recognition by the whole of the city of the inviolability of the powerful orators of the plebs. Thus, the patriciat modifies the Roman constitution to make it patricio-plebeian , and this in three complementary ways which form a coherent whole.

The culprit of an attack to the powerful orators of the plebs or the municipal officials of the plebs (reached physical or reached with their authority) from now on is devoted to Jupiter, and the product of the sale of its goods goes to Cérès, Liber and Released. A man devoted to Jupiter is not defended any more by the city of the men, but by Jupiter, to which it belongs. But this dedication does not make it untouchable: it is considered that if the god estimates himself injured death or wounds of the man who was devoted to him, it will punish the person in charge of its divine capacities better than the justice of the men. In practice, that was equivalent to an authorization of lynching, with impunity for the persons in charge. Lastly, by associating the triad capitoline with the plebeian triad, the patricians recognize from a religious point of view the equality plebs-patriciat.

From now on, the plebiscites , if they are ratified a posteriori by a Sénatus-consulte , obtain value of law binding the whole of the Roman people (whereas before, only the plebs began to respect the plebiscites ). The senatus consult ratifying a plebiscite from now on are filed by the municipal official S of the plebs. The plebs uses then in an intensive way this additional weight given to its decisions to reform the city.

Lastly, all the decisions of all the magistrates, and in particular of the consuls are subjected to the provocatio AD populum , i.e. with a call to the people, joined together in Comices centuriates. The capital punishments and the heavy fines are concerned. This innovation brings three important consequences:

the Consul S become truly collegial, with equality of capacities throughout the year, which is a first limit with their capacities;
after having lost, by the law of the XII Tables, the jurisdiction on the capital punishment, the consuls lose their capacity of coercitio , subjected to the intercession tribunician, which legally poses the power of the powerful orators vis-a-vis that, of the blow reduced, of the consuls; and the provocatio AD populum is not possible that if the powerful orator the esteem necessary.

The consular imperium is thus seriously started, with in parallel the recognition of the countervailing power of the powerful orators, which is however limited:

the intercessio tribunician is exerted only against the imperium domi : apart from the city, it does not exist any more, and the only limit with the capacities of the consul is possible a intercessio of his/her colleague;

until in 300 av. J. - C., the dictator S are not subjected nowhere to intercessio tribunician.

Essence is however acquired, with the superiority of the powerful orator on the consul, who comes to be added to the written setting of the laws, the election of the consuls, etc
The last important conquest of the plebs was the access to the consulate, by the compromise licinio-sextien, in 367 av. J. - C.. However, that relates to more the history of the Consul At, also for more details, consult this article.

Institutions

The plebeian triad

As of its constitution, the plebs decides to build a temple with a trio of gods, symmetrical of the Triade capitoline. This fact is with him only revealing of the extent of the crisis, and the desire to settle for a long time in an opposition to the Roman patriciat.

The three honoured divinities are Cérès, Liber and Libera. The temple is built out of the Pomœrium, with the foot of the Aventin. It was dedicated in 493 av. J. - C. by Spurius Cassius. Like the temples of Capitole, they shelter protective divinities, the treasure of the plebs and its files. The municipal officials of the plebs were attached there.

Powerful orators of the plebs

The representatives of the plebs are the powerful orators of the plebs. This collegial institution is initially elected by the plebs joined together within a framework similar to the Comices curiates, then by a new assembly, the reconciled plebis . They were always selected among the plebs, to prevent that a patrician does not oppose systematically by intercessio the action of the remainder of his colleagues. For more details, to see the article devoted to with the powerful orators of the plebs.

The reconciled plebis

The second institution specific to the plebs appears a little later, in 471 av. J. - C., with the creation of the reconciled plebis (or council of the plebs). With difference of Comices, which is legal assemblies of the Roman people, convened by a magistrate, which assemble the citizens, the reconciled plebis are gatherings, voluntary meetings, out of the civic legal framework. Hitherto, the powerful orators of the plebs were elected by the plebeian ones, joined together within a framework similar to that of the Comices curiates (but which were not the comices curiates, since the powerful orators of the plebs did not have the capacity to convene them).

Being opposed to the organization of the city, based on the bond gentilice (or clannish) with the Comices curiates, or on the richness (Comices centuriates), the plebs chooses as bases electoral framework the residence of the citizen. It thus takes again the organization in territorial tribes. These tribes have nothing to do with tribes in the direction of differentiated people, it acts of cuttings of the territory of Rome. In 471 av. J. - C., one counts 25 of them: 4 urban tribes corresponding to the four areas of Rome; Palatina, Esquilina, Collina and Suburana (inside the ville of Rome, roughly speaking within the limits of the pomœrium ) and a dizine of rustic tribes (number which will increase up to 31 by afterwards, Source: Mr. Glay, Y. Bohec and Close J-L in Roman History page 34). The calculation of the individual voices is done inside the tribes and determines the opinion of each tribe. Each tribe has a voice then.

The choice was made on the framework of the tribes for several reasons:

since Servius Tullius, the Roman citizenship is determined by the membership of a tribe;
within this framework, not of advantage given to the rich person or to the Seniors;
the pressures from the patriarchal framework of the people and which were facilitated by the Comices curiates disappear.

Thus, all the citizens who recognize themselves in the plebs, which recognizes the authority of the powerful orator of the plebs, and which lent oath, are equal between them.

Municipal officials of the plebs

Members of the plebs

The Homines quasi-profit

The richest part of plebeian, alive like certain patricians, because they were right in lower part of the Cens necessary or that they carried out professions incompatible with the dignitas peerage-book. Some their ascending the or downward ones, having the taxable quota, will continue the Cursus honorum .

the negatiores are wholesale dealers.
the argentarii are the financial ones. This profession requires funds much higher than the minimum taxable quota but is incompatible with a man of good. Some were it by choice.

All these men act as coherent social group, they harmonize their interests within the framework of conventus . They are close to the equestrian order which occupies the post offices of the Roman magistrature, share the social habits (Clientélisme, evergetism) and the cultural interests of those.

The average layer

It is formed by a broad layer of craftsmen ( artes ) which one could count, on the tomb stones, more than 160 specializations against a hundred in France of the Moyen-âge.

the tradesmen ( tabernarii ) constitute the most active share of the plebs. They are citizens, Affranchi S or Pérégrin S. They can have slaves to help them in their work, to be owner of their graver or to rent it. They are very quickly subjected to the political risks and monetary crises. They belong to the population being able to create the disorders which shake Rome regularly. The more so as they form collegia under the direction of a magister to defend their specific interests (tax, improvement of the supply, lower interest rates). These regroupings never led to political claims, however their political role is not completely neutral in the votes and the collegia do not hesitate to make countryside. The Collegia were however prohibited on several occasions. The Collegia had also a social role (for the funerary rites for example) and reproduced in their institutions the generic hierarchy of the company. Their seat is called the scholae . One finds for example:

Crowned college of the tile makers

Very majestic workshop of the cameramen

Crowned consistory of the tisserands

Proletarii

One distinguishes the openings , those which work and the agencies , those which do not have anything. They are the small craftsmen, the days laborer, and even of the not paid employees. They must however know a trade because the slaves, generally, are used for tasks not requiring knowledge. The public power takes care to ensure them of work in the large urban building sites, sometimes with the detriment of mechanization. When they do not have work, they escape indigence by the means of the public distributions and private generosities ( fermentaciones and Sportule ). One estimates their number at 320.000 at the end of the République. The archaeological data and testimonys are very rare, one thus knows them badly.

The turba

It is the plebs of the hollows and it is better known than the proletarii because it much more intrigued and worried the upper classeses. Certain poor are ready with any low action for some parts; civiquement unverifiable, they can become dangerous in the event of disorder. They live public distributions essentially. This part of the plebs is invited by the official Romans to leave Rome for the colonies, but without success.

The rural world

The rural world accounts for 90% of the total population. For more half populated, according to certain authors, slaves. The majority of the free agricultural workers do not have the ground which they exploit or only on some juguères, nonsufficient to live. In many places, the conditions are connected with the forced labors, a wandering life, a chronic debt, incompatible with the family life. Also, the armed robbery was important, the campaigns were not sure and of many testimonys show that one could leave the life or freedom there. The chiefs of village, behaving as chiefs of the ancestral clans, made apply their laws by the vendetta. The situation developed only little over all the Roman period.

See too

Secessions of the plebs
Lex Hydrangea - Lex Canuleia - Laws licinio-sextiennes - Lex Ogulnia
Powerful orator of the plebs
Plebiscite
Prefect of the annone
ancient Proletariat
Rome

External bonds

More
female prostitution in Rome between -200 and 200 after Jesus-Christ. Test of control.

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