Mésoamérique
The Mésoamérique or Mesoamerica is a term employed in Archéologie précolombienne to indicate the part of the American continent which the Aztèques at the time of the arrival of the Spanish knew in 1519.
Definition
The term Mesoamerica was proposed by the German Anthropologue Paul Kirchhoff in the Années 1940, on the basis of list of cultural features common to the America Moyenne .At the geographical level, Mésoamérique extends from the southernmost third of the Mexico to the peninsula of Nicoya, the Costa Rica (even until the south of the country), by including the Belize, the Guatemala, the west of the Honduras, the El Salvador and the peaceful slope of the Nicaragua. Mésoamérique is to be differentiated from the Central America which, in its geographical meaning, goes from the Guatemala to the Panama.
This surface is characterized by an exclusively cultural uniformity which appears on several plans. The northern border of Mésoamérique separates the companies from hunters-gatherers (in north) of the agricultural companies (in the south); it moved during time. In the south, the border is cultural and linguistic.
Cultural surfaces
The cultural surfaces represent the areas inhabited by people which count many joint elements. However, that does not want to say that all the people belong to only one and even ethnos group, nor even as they speak necessarily the same language, but that does not prevent either a form of interaction between them (relations of being able, alliance, commercial, etc)
Center of Mexico
One of the most important surfaces of the prehispanic history of Mexico was that of the center of the Mexico.
Made of moderated grounds, between the southernmost part of the Mexican plate and the north of the basin of the Río Balsas, it is an ecological niche characterized by its moderated climate, the absence of important river and a rain season which lasts from April at September but which is not very abundant. These characteristics allowed the development avant-gardist of hydraulic techniques like the irrigation canals and the retaining tanks, as well as culture of the Maïs, in the lake valley of Tehuacán, in the south east.
Around the Lac of Texcoco opened out very important cities like Cuicuilco, at the preclassical period, Teotihuacán at the traditional period or Tula and Tenochtitlán at the time postclassic.
Maya surface
The Maya surface is one of the vastest surfaces of the Mesoamerica. Certain authors divide it into two sectors: The Peninsula of Yucatan, with north, and the Highlands in the south.
The northern part includes the Yucatán, the Petén and Belize. It is a zone of plains, of hot climate, often struck by the hurricanes and the tropical Orages of the Caribbean. It is a very hot platform where the mounts break the flatness of the landscape. The ground being too permeable, it often misses surface water. However " cenotes" (kinds of well or cellars underground irrigated) are abundant.
The Highlands, in the south, include/understand the heights of the Guatemala and those of the Chiapas. It is an area with the cold moderate climate where the rains are abundant and the covered mountains of a dense vegetation which allows the development of agriculture. The Maya Highlands are not exposed to the influence of the cyclones of the Caribbean which regularly make devastations in the zone.
The first important cultural developments of the Maya surface took place in its southern part. The first ceramics, produced in the locality of Cuello (Belize), seems to indicate that the development of the pottery in the Maya surface is derived from the South American traditions. Centuries later, the first concentrations of populations which were going to change downtown for the traditional period are developed. Among them one can quote " Kaminaljuyu" and " Tikal". The latter was certainly largest of the Maya cities between the 3ère and 8ère centuries. The decline and the abandonment of the Maya big cities were surely due to a combination of factors: Internal wars, ecological disasters, climate changes, migrations coming from the North of the Mesoamerica. Thus the heart of the Maya culture migrated in Yucatan. It is in this area that flowered the more recent cities of Chichén Itzá, Uxmal and Tulum, between much of others, which were actually only of small hostile people between them.
Oaxaca
right|thumb|200px|The sierra Mixteca
The región oaxaqueña fue desde the época mesoamericana una of mow más diversas. Trata of a territorio sumamente montañoso, enmarcado por the Sierra Veined LED On there el Escudo Mixteco. Incluye una porción of cuenca LED río Balsas, caracterizada por known sequedad there complicado relieve. Known cauces of agua its cortos there of poca capacidad. In ese sentido, parece bastante with Central región LED of Mexico City.
Principal backs fueron los escenarios of the historia farming of los pueblos oaxaqueños. Por a lado, los valles Centrales of Oaxaca vieron el desarrollo of will cultura Zapoteca, una of mow más antiguas there conocidas LED ámbito mesoamericano. Esta will cultura desarrolló from los cacicazgos regional that controlaban will tierra it of cultivo (muy fértil, aunque demasiado seca) of los pequeños valles of Etla, Tlacolula there Miahuatlán. Algunos of los primeros ejemplos of gran will arquitectura in Mesoamérica pertenecen has esta región, como el central ceremonial of San Jose Mogote. The hegemonía of este central ceremonial in the región del Valle, pasó has manos Monte Albán, it capital clásica of los zapotecos. The caída of Teotihuacán in el siglo VIII cd. permitió el mayor apogeo of will cultura zapoteca. Sin embargo, the ciudad of Assembles Albán fue abandonada in el siglo X cd., dio lugar has there una series of centros regional that disputaban the hegemonía política.
Al poniente of los valles Central, localiza the región Mixteca. Trata of a terreno sumamente montañoso of variable altitudes muy, that más of 3000 msnm has it. Los climas varían LED templado of montaña Al trópico seco, in general the lluvia be escasa there. Existen pocas corrientes superficiales of agua, there of the actualidad, buena leaves the shingles presented a grado deforestación alarming derivado of will agricultura of Roza practicada por los antiguos living región. Mixteca be también una shingles ocupada desde tiempos inmemoriales. Ya desde el período Preclásico habían formado in the región algunos núcleos of población important, como Yucuita Cerro of mow Mined there. Sin embargo, mow capitals Mixteca S No alcanzaron nunca the magnitud of known vecinas zapotecas. El mayor apogeo of will cultura mixteca fue alcanzado in el Período Posclásico, cuando el señor Ocho Venado of Tututepec Tilantongo emprendió una campaña of unificación política of mow ciudades-estado mixtecas has it there there ocupar los Valles Centrales of Oaxaca.
Guerrero
Tradicionalmente was considered has Guerrero como una región perteneciente Al área Occidente. Sin embargo, los descubrimientos más recientes, han reorientado the división of mow áreas farming mesoamericanas, there of los trabajos of reciente autoría, Guerrero aparece como a farming área independiente. Guerrero ocupa aproximadamente surface LED estado LED mismo number, localizado in el on Mexico City. Puede to dividir itself in very regiones idiot características different: Al norte, important depresión LED río Balsas, donde esta corriente of agua juega el papel más in the configuración of the regional geografía. The depresión del Balsas be una región baja, of clima cálido there escasas lluvias, cuya sequedad are aminorada por presencia LED río Balsas known there numerosos tributary. Leaves central corresponds to Sierra Veined LED On, región rica in yacimientos mineral there idiot escasas cualidades agrícolas. Leaves on LED área guerrerense are constituida por costa LED Océano Pacífico, una will llanura will costera muy angosta, of Manglar are will palmeras there, azotada por los huracanes provenientes del Pacífico.
Guerrero fue el escenario of mow will precede tradiciones will alfareras of Mesoamérica. Los restaurants más antiguos of ella han sido encontrados in Puerto Marked, cerca of Acapulco, there tienen una edad aproximada of 3500 años. Lasting el Preclásico, the cuenca del Balsas convirtió in una shingles of vital importancia para el desarrollo of will cultura Olmeca, that dejó huellas of known presencia in sitios como Teopantecuanitlán there tired Grutas de Juxtlahuaca. Más tardío fue el desarrollo of una tradición escultórica conocida como Mezcala, caracterizada por known tendencia with geometrización LED cuerpo humano. Lasting el Período Posclásico, the mayor starts from Guerrero quedó bajo dominio of los Mexica S, there sólo permaneció independiente el señorío tlapaneco of Yopitzinco.
Occident
El Occidente be una of mow shingles menos conocidas of Mesoamérica. Trata por ello mismo of una extensa región, that comprende tired will laderas of the Sierra Veined Western, una leaves Sierra Veined LED On there the cuenca media there baja LED Río Lerma. Mow estribaciones of the montaña estaban cubiertas the bosques ones of Pino S there Encino S, pero the actividad silvícola ha reducido known tamaño. Will tierra holds vocación agrícola por known fertilidad there the disposición of recursos hidráulicos, especialmente in will llanura will costera of Sinaloa, el Bajío there the Meseta Tarasca. Los climas varían LED frío of montaña, in el directs tropical Michoacán, hasta el clima of mow costas of Nayarit.
The región fue el hábitat of pueblos of habla Uto-azteca, como los Cora S, Huichol be there tepehuanos. The incorporación of estos pueblos with will esfera of the civilización mesoamericana fue muy gradual, is supposed there that los primeros desarrollos cerámicos of the región estuvieron vinculados idiot tired tradiciones of los pueblos andinos of Ecuador there Perú. Los cambios that afectaron Al restaurant of mow regiones of will manera will clara its menos observable in Occidente, por ello, tired tradiciones farming LED Preclásico, como of Colima, Jalisco there Nayarit O of Tumbas de Tiro sobrevivieron hasta well entrado el Período Clásico (150-750/900 cd.). The más conocida of mow sociedades of Occidente be the Purépecha O tarasca, that rivalizó in el siglo XV cd. idiot el poderío of los Mexica S.
Norte
The shingles Norte de Mesoamérica formó starts from esta superárea farming sólo lasting el período clásico (150-750 cd.), in el apogeo of tired Teotihuacan el crecimiento of the población favorecieron migraciones hacia el norte el comercio tired idiot lejanas will tierras oasisamericanas there there. Trata of a territorio llano, comprendido between mow sierras Veined Eastern there Western. El clima be seco, casi desértico, the vegetación are escasa, por lo there that will agricultura it in el Norte sólo fue possible mediant the canalización of mow corrientes of agua superficial (between mow that destacan el Río Pánuco there los tributary del Lerma) there el almacenamiento LED agua of lluvia. The excesiva dependencia LED buen clima has it los pueblos del Norte de Mesoamérica has abandonar the región has mediados LED siglo VIII cd., in that enfrentaron una prolongada sequía there tired invasiones pueblos aridoamericanos.
Los centros of población in el Norte eran dependientes of the red of comercio that estableció between Teotihuacan there tired sociedades of Oasisamérica. Sitios como Quemada in Zacatecas, O Ferrería in Durango, sirvieron como fuertes tired para vigilar rutas commercial. Cuando will agricultura it there el sistema social colapsaron in el Norte, los ocupantes of the región migraron hacia Occidente, el Golfo there el Centro of Mexico City.
Centroamérica
right|thumb|200px|Lago Nicaragua
El área conocida como Centroamérica ocupa tired costas pacíficas of El El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua there the Península de Nicoya in Costa Rica. Trata of una región of clima tropical, idiot actividad telúrica important, that incluye además los large backs Lagos mediterráneos of Central América: el Nicaragua there el Managua. Como in el caso of the región Norte, Centroamérica formó leaves LED mundo mesoamericano sólo temporalmente. Suele considerar that los pueblos centroamericanos forman leaves the llamada shingles of transición between el mundo andino there Mesoamérica. Los primeros contactos between el área nuclear mesoamericana ocurrieron in el Preclásico, como indica the influencia olmeca in el área. Sin embargo, in el Período Clásico tired relaciones interrumpieron Centroamérica recibió a mayor influjo of mow will culturas yourself LED altiplano colombiano there. Ejemplo of ello be el desarrollo temprano of the metalurgia in Centroamérica idiot respecto Al restaurant of los pueblos mesoamericanos. Para el período Posclásico, el área quedó incluida nuevamente in will esfera mesoamericana, there fue invadida por pueblos como los Pipiles there Nicarao S, hablantes Náhuat, a dialecto LED idioma of los Mexica S. -->
Characteristics of civilization mésoaméricaine
Diversity
Mésoamérique has a great linguistic and geographical diversity.- linguistic : four categories are distinguished:
- the group oto-mango , which occupies mainly central Mexico. In his center, one distinguishes the Otomi, people without history, as well as the Zapotèques and the Mixtèques. This group is undoubtedly oldest of Mésoamérique.
- the group macromaya , which include/understand mixes-zoque it, the totonaque one, the huaxtèque one and the Maya properly which subdivides itself in several groups.
- the Uto-Aztecan group , which includes/understands the Nahuatl, whose speakers are widespread in practically all Mésoamérique (the Aztec ones, as the name indicates it, formed part of it). The Chichimèques, in the north of Mésoamérique, also formed part of the Uto-Aztecan group.
- of the Isolate S linguistics, among which the Tarasque S form the most important group.
- geographical : the various mediums which go from the tropical zone to the Sierra while passing by the top-plates of the center do not correspond to a cultural surface.
Unit
All civilizations précolombiennes of this zone show common cultural characteristics, which they are the Olmèques, of Aztec, of the Zapotèques, the Toltèques, the Mayas or the civilization of Teotihuacán. These characteristics distinguish them from other civilizations précolombiennes, like the Andean Civilizations, for example:- a ritual architecture: whole of pyramidal constructions and courses form a “interface” which connects the human world to the supernatural world;
- of the religions Polytheist S, with prototypes, like “Old God of fire” or the plumed serpent, Quetzalcoatl, which one finds in a form or the other in all Mésoamérique.
- the human sacrifice, whose archeologists recognized omnipresence only gradually. For example, the “Danzantes” of Assembles Alban, which one formerly took for dancers, are now regarded as sacrificial victims.
- a ritual play of ball, whose rules are known little about and varied with the time, but which is also omnipresent under one or the other form.
- a calculation of time combining two calendars, one 260 days, the other 365 days (the Mayas have the characteristic to have a third of it: the long Account);
- one or the other form of pictographic writing (the Maya writing being sophisticated more);
- a vigesimal numbering system;
- an agriculture based on the Corn and especially its treatment: to boil in water mixed with lime its nutritional value increases. One makes of it then a paste called “nixtamal” into Aztec;
- the absence of pets (if one excludes the Chien and the Dindon).
Chronology
Traditional chronology
The chronological framework of civilizations mésoaméricaines is the same one. One distinguishes traditionally:- one antiquated time (8000 with 2500 av. J.C)
- one preclassical time (2500 av. J.C with 300 a. J.C)
- one traditional time (300 with 900 a. J.C)
- one postclassic time (900 a. J.C with the Spanish conquest)
Chronology " moderne"
Certain authors, like Christian Duverger, reproach this classification for implying a value judgment: pre implying that civilization in question is only in gestation, and post that it entered in decline. With this tripartite division, Christian Duverger prefers a division in five times, based on the concept of horizon (olmèque, toltèque and Aztec):- Hunters-gatherers (Arrived of the man at 7000 av. J.C)
- Paléo-sedentaries (7000 with 1200 av. J.C)
- Time I (1200 with 500 av. J.C)
- Time II (500 av. J.C with 200 after J.C)
- Time III (200 with 800 after J.C)
- Time IV (800 with 1300 after J.C)
- Time V (1300 with 1519 after J.C)
The chronology of C. Duverger is based on the date of 1200 av. J.C, but at the time of excavations on the site of El Manati, close to San Lorenzo, one seems to have found objects olmèques going back to approximately 1500 av. J.C. (see biography: Richard A. Diehl). But it is an exception and it is necessary to be careful and not to draw from hasty conclusions starting from these datings coming only from one site.
The chronology of Christian Duverger is adopted by the French specialists and some Mexicains specialists even if the majority of the Anglo-Saxon specialists stick to the traditional chronology. It is however possible that this chronology ends up being retained, in Europe and in Mexico, because it eminently clearer and reflects best the archaeological reality of Mésoamérique.
Time I
This is for the moment an outline drawn from the presentation on the article Olmèque.The olmèque culture remains unknown until second half of the XIX° century. The specialists agree to fix the beginnings of the olmecology in 1862 with the fortuitous discovery of the first colossal head at Hueyapan (Veracruz) by Jose María Melgar there Serrano. Today, according to the French school promoted by C. Niederberger and taken again in particular by C. Magni, the olmèque culture seems an multi-ethnic unit and pluri-linguistics which extends from 1200 before J.C. up to 500 before J.C. on a vast part of the Mesoamerica. Its presence is attested on old levels of occupation on the Coast of the Gulf, in the Basin of Mexico City and along the Pacifique coast in the States of Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas. Beyond the Mexican borders, one counts vestiges olmèques until the south of Costa Rica. Among the major sites, one can quote: San Lorenzo (Veracruz), Was windy It (Tabasco), Chalcatzingo (Morelos), Teopantecuanitlán (Guerrero) and Abaj Takalik (or Takalik Abaj) in Guatemala.
Time II
Zapotèques
Time III
Mayas
Time IV
Toltèques
Time V
the Aztec ones
Ecological context
The territory mésoaméricain is located between the 10° and the 22° of northern latitude. It includes/understands the central zone of Mexico, the isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Péninsule of Yucatán; the Guatemala, the Belize, the El Salvador and the peaceful coast of the Honduras, Nicaragua and of the Costa Rica to the gulf of Nicoya. It forms a complex association of various ecosystems. Michael D. Coe distinguishes the highlands (which gather the various zones whose altitude lies between 1000 to 2000 m) which are also known like Mexican Altiplano and the lowlands with altitudes closer to the sea level and which do not exceed 1000 Mr. the first group has a great climatic diversity, which goes from the cold climate of mountain to the arid tropical climate. However the subtropical or tropical climates prevail, as on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.
Some of the valleys of the highlands of Mésoamérique have a fertile ground with agricultural vocation. It is the case of the valleys of Oaxaca, that of Puebla-Tlaxcala and Mexico City. However, their boxed situation does not support precipitations. This situation is particularly critical in the hot grounds of the mixtèques valleys which are undoubtedly most arid of the highlands. In addition to the lack of rain, there exists little of river and they have a reduced flow. The first research archaeological S presupposed that the climate was to be more favorable in the past. However, with the years and the profusion of knowledge on the area, one knows that the climate was not to be so different from that from today, although the ecosystem S present a degree of degradation caused by the human activity. A good part of the highlands present evidence of a old Déforestation, and various species disappeared from their habitat of origin.
Consequently, although the conditions of the highlands of Mésoamérique were not extraordinarily favorable, they were not too unfavourable either to prevent the development of high agricultural civilizations of antiquity Préhispanique.
In fact, their situation is similar to those of other areas of the world where occurred early civilizing processes, as in the north of the Peru, or in the valley of the Indus, in Asia. In these sites, as in Mésoamérique the human being had to learn how to benefit to the maximum of the resources which it had in its medium. The mésoaméricains of the highlands, as agricultural people, learned how to store water and to convey it since the sources to their field. Among the agricultural techniques of most characteristic Mésoamérique was perhaps the culture in Chinampa S, developed in the lakes of the Plateau Tarasque and more particularly in the Vallée of Mexico City, where it is preserved a certain number of zones of chinampería at Xochimilco.
Moreover, they had to learn how to count the time since the period during which they could sow remained included/understood between two seasons which threatened the result of harvests of the principal culture, the Maïs: the hot season and dries of the beginning of spring and the winter frosts.
It was very different for the lowlands. Particularly in the south-east of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico where the rains are rather abundant. The tropical forests with dense vegetation covered a good part of the coastal plains and this represented an obstacle for the development of agriculture. In these sites, as much the vegetation as the water excess constituted a problem, the antiques mésoaméricains conceived systems of drainage, which one can today observe the remainders in the under-area of Chontalpa in the state of Tabasco, where there remains what one calls the camellones chontales .
In addition, the fauna of which laid out the people mésoaméricains was not easily domesticable. Several millenia before the beginning of the civilization of average America, the major species of mammals which could have been domesticated had disappeared by an excessive hunting. Such was the case of the horse and various point of bovines. This explains why the people of the area lacked draft animal and why civilization mésoaméricaine was exclusively agricultural. The only domesticated species were the Xoloitzcuintle and the Dindon, but they never constituted an important part of the mode or economy of the majority of the mésoaméricains.
In spite by what precedes, the companies of the area practiced the hunting of another species, in complement of their mode (stag, rabbits, birds, and of many insects), or like sumptuary articles (skins the cat-like ones, plumages). Since Mésoamérique is presented fragmented in very reduced and various ecological niches, none the companies which populated it during times prehispanic was self-sufficing. For this reason, as from the last centuries of the antiquated period, former to preclassical, the people of the area specialized in the exploitation of certain abundant natural resources. Then they established networks of commercial exchange to correct the lacks which had with the environment. The people of the West, for example, specialized in the agricultural production and ceramics; the oaxaqueños produced cotton and the cochineal; coast arrived salt, the dried fish, the marine shells and the pigment like purple; low grounds of the Maya zone and gulf came the cocoa, vanilla, the skins of jaguar, the invaluable birds like the quetzal or the guacamaya; center left major the part of the obsidian which got busy in the manufacture of the weapons and the tools.
See too
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