Luminous pollution

The expression luminous pollution is used at the same time to indicate the abnormal and/or awkward night presence of Lumière (one will then speak rather about “luminous harmful effect” ) and the consequences of the illumination, night, on fauna, the flora, the fonge (the reign of mushrooms), the ecosystem S or sometimes of the effects suspectés or proven on the human health.

As that of pollution of the night sky which replaces it sometimes, the concept of luminous pollution ( light pollution in English) is recent: appeared in the years 1980, it evolved/moved since.

This concept was originally carried by North-American astronomers then European and their representative organizations (French Association of Astronomy in France, Darsky.org in North America.), then by other actors confronted with a fast degradation of the night Environment; ecologists, developers, energeticians, doctors, academics, lawyers, lighting engineers, agencies implied in the field of the Sustainable development fitted in this new field of study and work.

Definition

Strictly speaking , the expression “pollution luminous” indicates the phenomenon growing of functional deteriorations of ecosystems by interference of artificial light in the night Environnement, and more precisely when this light has significant negative impacts on some famous being of the “species-key” (of which for example certain night insects (butterflies, coleopters), bat, Amphibians…) and with beyond on the Integrity écopaysagère.
A geobiologic scale, it is a completely recent phenomenon (a few decades; to compare with more than 3,7 billion years evolution). For this reason, and following a late awakening, with the lack of budget and human means assigned to its study, its width and its importance are not yet completely encircled. Its impacts only were partially studied, and only for certain groups of species (primarily birds).

Sources of pollution luminous

Luminous pollution has like physical source the light lost or reflected, emitted by fixed and permanent sources such as the luminaries of the Ville S, the ports, the airports, of the carparks, roads, and other industrial facility, loader-gates and commercial, advertizing, of the enlightened buildings and offices the night and whose glazed walls and windows are not occulted, by the Phare S of the littorals, etc
Des mobile sources as the headlights of vehicles also contribute to it for a share still difficult to measure, but which should not be underestimated, being given the importance of the phenomenon known as of Roadkill. Very locally, of the guns with light and lighting lasers can also have impacts on certain species.

By extension, the expression “ luminous pollution ” was often used to indicate the luminous Halo urban which is an index. This halation is produced by the light “useful” or more often useless “lost” dispersed or reflected by the molecules of certain gases and the suspended particles in the Terrestrial atmosphere. Thus is formed a luminous Halo diffuse which - by increasing the general brightness of the sky - mask the vision of the vault of heaven and gives an orange color to brownish to the night sky.

This diffuse halation visible with tens of kilometers is an indication of probable luminous pollution to large scales. It is exacerbated in the following cases:

when the lower atmosphere is wet (fog, drizzle)
when the lower atmosphere is polluted by particles (water microgouttelettes, particles emitted with exhaust fumes, fine dust, smoke and other soots and particles.).
when the light is emitted in a not very directional way (for example by standard lamp-swell), or voluntarily directed towards the sky.
when the air is charged in particles (pollution, smoke, dust contamination)
when the light is reverberated by a reflective surface (snow, ice, water, mirror or clear surfaces).

From a chronological point of view, the expression has, in fact, initially indicated the embarrassment caused by the luminous halations with the astronomers which need a pure sky and a good darkness to observe the stars. They must move away more and more from the cities and the enlightened zones to correctly be able to observe the sky. Many a astronomical observatories of universities located downtown or in their suburbs has being given up in Europe and in the USA, of which the royal observatory of Greenwich.

Historical backgrounds

At the 17th century, public lighting appears with the creation of the companies of lantern makers to light certain streets of Paris, then capitals of provinces. In 1667, Louis XIV imposed the lighting of all the streets of the capital to fight against the flights and the crimes.

With the invention of the Coal gas (known as Gas for domestic use) produced by the works gas, lighting extended and developed its first ecological impacts, announced by some chroniclers of the time (clouds of dozen butterflies becoming exhausted to whirl around the gas burner and coming to lay per tens, to see per hundreds on certain barrels of the lanterns (with the Cimetière of the Father-Lachaise for example).

It is with the appearance and the fast diffusion of the Electric bulb and the electrical communication, that public lighting was spread in the world, producing as of the years 1940 a beginning of luminous halation already announced by the astronomers as being an embarrassment for their work.

Increasingly powerful maritime headlights were built on the littorals and certain islands (Ushant.). As of the 18th century one realizes that they attract the birds, sometimes per thousands (This phenomenon was painted in 1911 by Clarke in a table entitled the Headlight ). Pr Anthonie Stolk seems to be the first scientifically to have described it and studied in 1963. Some Ornithologue S were used for about it in the Sixties to ring the birds which whirled around the headlights (by catching them with scoops, for example on the headlight of Ushant in France). before apperçoive only the lighting of the barrel of the headlight the problem was removed

The luminous halations were strongly reduced in occupied zone and in the zones of engagements at the time of the World wars, to save electricity and especially because of the cover-fires imposed by the occupant or the allied forces. (In 1918, whereas the motorized vehicles were still rare, the headlights in position “code” were authorized the night, but it was necessary to stop and cut lighting at the time of alarms and in the event of passages of planes).
En 39-45, the panes were to be sealed or tinted of blue, generally by means of a painting applied outside, and in occupied zone, same the headlights of the bicycles - as those of the cars and trucks - were to be provided with a mask or a blue painting leaving visible only one slit producing a fine line of light, less visible of plane or by far.
Après the wars the periods of euphoria and revival of consumption were accompanied by incentives to the development of the use of electricity and lighting. From 1919 to 1939, the acetylene torches developed in the dwellings, in particular to clarify Sunday when the mills and certain factories which produced electricity stopped. External urban lightings were then fed by the many gas works supplied with coal.

In the years 1970-1980, the light lost by lightings starts to be described as luminous pollution ; it floods the cities and more and more the countryside, masking the majority of stars until completely making them disappear from the field of view. One speaks in fact about a harmful effect more than of a pollution.

The concept of “ luminous pollution ” was born (under this denomination) at the end of the years 1980.

It then gathered mainly factors now grouped under the expression “harmful effects luminous”, mixing the Artéfact S which obstruct or make impossible the astronomical observation of certain parts of the sky starting from the observatories, with complex aspects such as the potential impacts, had a presentiment of or proven of the intrusive Lumière on the health of the children or with the adults who are exposed there.
In the years 1990, the astronomers and physicists of the atmosphere started to develop instruments to in general measure this new form of modification of the Environment and night Environnement in particular.
As from the years 1995, as the titles and contents to the conferences and symposiums testify some which deal with this problem, the ecological impacts take an increasing importance. The researchers and the naturalists start to highlight them and to quantify them, whereas the reflection concerning the impacts on the Santé continues, not without difficulties because of the lack of epidemiologic data specifically collected to study the question. The researchers are also based on data or relative studies with the Vision, the hormonal Système (cf Mélatonine) and on medical studies or of applied research (whose concerning for example the treatments against the Rachitisme by the U.V., the therapies by exposure to the light for resynchroniser the Horloge interns or to look after depressive patients , etc).
Some studies are in hand on the means or bearing long run on the bonds between safety, criminality, burgling and lighting, which highlight the complexity of the question and hustle some generally accepted ideas.
Of other disciplines, energy of the Geography and the Urbanisme to the Ergonomie seize question since the end of the year 1990, including through the study of the night, urban life in particular. The first university thesis exclusively devoted to luminous pollution starts in France only in 2006.

The satellite Imagerie starts to make it possible to quantify and chart in an objective way luminous pollution, but the images of utmost precision or nonenlightened face of the earth taken in the infra-red or the Ultraviolet remain property of the soldiers or inaccessible for reasons of cost.

Modeling

Certain models integrating the optical principles of the refraction or diffusion of the light on the matters existed already, developed for the cinema, the video games and the graphic softwares or of simulations. Other mathematical models were worked out by physicists of the light and atmosphere, with astronomers and specialists in the satellite imagery to trace cartographies and to make exploratory studies (of which to position the new astronomical observatories). These models prove increasingly powerful when one compares their results with measurements of ground or the images satellite. Some cartographies large-public or intended for the astronomers were published after the years 2000, after the publication on August 1st, 2001 by a research team Italian and American, directed by professor Pierantonio Cinzano, of the world Atlas of the artificial clearness of the night sky, often famous “world Atlas of luminous pollution”. A French translation exists about it, made by ANPCN.

Causes

The instinctive fear of the black, an considerable increase of the offer in materials of lighting and electricity (abundant and less expensive the night) as well as a strong demand of safety on behalf of the public and of the elected officials are generally quoted like leading causes of the hyper urban lighting and périurbain, which generated various wastings even perhaps abusive uses of the light.

Useless or inappropriate lightings with sometimes of the beams of light projected directly towards the sky, the use of bulbs of an excessive power or obsolete material (mercury discharge lamps high pressure, luminaries in the shape of balls, ballast very consuming energy…) are responsible for a luminous pollution that the satellites measure (rise from 5 to 10% per annum end of the year 90). A considerable quantity of light is lost towards the sky, creating a luminous Halo increasingly important, which veils stars. This phenomenon are added the impacts of the “guns to light” or “skytracers” (often improperly named laser), or of the lasers which sweep the sky with the top of the buildings. Billboards, neons, windows of the stores and the dispersing lighting of hundreds of thousands of enlightened buildings (monuments, castles, bridges, banks, churches, etc) by powerful spots which remain often lit all the night.

Lastly, the low costs of electricity, especially in the countries which produce some much encouraged a long time with the electric Surconsommation for lighting, in a context where the laws protecting the night environment quasi-absent or are respected little. However, of many countries have mainly thermo plants or only of those for their electric production, the inevitable increase in the courses of oil should encourage them to revise their practices of public lighting.

Consequences

Luminous pollution has many negative consequences:

Especially on the fauna and at least in an indirect way on the Flora;

the great agglomerations and very enlightened littorals disturb the direction of the orientation of the migratory birds. Those commit suicide per million on buildings and their superstructures (see photographs and legends opposite). More than 140 species different committed suicide by collision with the buildings from Toronto. According to ONG FLAP, only with the USA, the figure could reach the 100 million birds killed per annum by collision with panes or elements of architecture on the whole of their migratory course. It is much more than the number of birds killed by the oil slicks such as that of Exxon Valdez. The species which commit suicide generally thus are also indexed like declining chronicle and sometimes classified as “ threatened ”, and in addition are theoretically protected by the law and from international conventions. Misty time seems particularly favourable with these phenomena, in particular in the cities located on the migratory axes most important (littorals, valleys, chains of lakes and wetlands or in the axis of certain collars of mountain).
the majority of the animals to night manners are disturbed by the illumination, at the point sometimes to disappear from their habitat when they is enlightened. The majority of the invertebrates of the ground flee the light. At the season of the loves, the rennet or splashes it Rana clamitans melanota sing less Divers snakes and frogs tested also showed themselves disturbed in their development when they are enlightened the night.
big number of Insect S, attracted by light, are directly killed by bulbs not protected, are eaten by predatory (bat generally) which finds them thus more easily, or are victims of the phenomenon of Roadkill, which generates an imbalance of the animal Food chain.
Of the harmful effects indirect (and perhaps direct) is described (or suspected) on the plants which can less “rest” the night and carry out a normal photosynthesis, in spite of a lengthening of the duration of the foliage.
the illumination delays the fall of the sheets (several months sometimes).
Reduction in harvests due to the illumination? (there are more the adventitious ones (bad grasses) when the seeds are enlightened in the 4 hours which follow their update during a ploughing).

As recent example of impact of luminous pollution on the avifauna, one can quote the bridge Øresund, larger bridge of Europe connecting Sweden to Denmark

the alignment of standard lamps of this bridge was brought into service for the first time the night of October 8th, 2000.

the motorists noted that thousands of birds lay by ground or threw themselves on their cars.

According to a Swedish association ornithologist, the ornithologist called to note the first damage after the night of October 8th, 2000 could collect and identify 344 migratory birds among the corpses. There remained approximately as much but nonidentifiable about it (crushed by the vehicles). One can estimate that at least as much, if not much more, had fallen into the sea. They are thus 1 000 birds at least which perished in only one night, attracted by the luminous halations in the fog. It is around the most enlightened places, on the highest part of the bridge, that the maximum of corpses were trouvés.
La majority of the birds (288) were thrushes (in full migration), all the corpses were not identifiable, but here as indication the inventory drawn up for the first night.

These birds, as the majority of their congeneric migrate night primarily. It is estimated that they were attracted by the halation (amplified by the fog and the reflection on water) or by the strong lights, and either they were struck or wounded on the structures and superstructures then fell on the bridge or at sea, or they were struck or killed by collision with vehicles then were crushed on the way. A certain number probably continued their migration while being wounded, which decreases their chances of survival.
L' Swedish ornithologist notes that the phenomenon will reproduce except change in lighting and suggests that one decreases the light to the maximum the nights when exist risks of rain and/or fog coinciding with the dates of the great migrations.

the impact of the light in particular on the open sea or on the littorals (headlights) on the migratory birds known but is documented little.

highways… It seems that at the time of the opening of the lighting of the highway A 16 between Belgium and Calais a similar phenomenon, but perhaps of less great width occurred. There no had however been counting.

a group of ornithologists also works on this topic in Toronto (Canada) In the USA, a project of illumination of bridge in Los Angeles thus has being completely re-examined after environmental evaluation.

the architects and developers could learn with better using devices rétroréfléchissants or lightings flexible according to the risks or conceived not to disturb the luminous birds of low intensity guiding the cars instead of lighting the ground directly, with [[fiberoptic|fiberoptics]) for example], but in spite of their profitability, the technologies most sober and own or of high-quality environmental (HQE) only are taught very little in the university courses and of universities or schools of architecture.

See also: the site of the bridge-tunnel Øresundsbron

Safety and comfort;

the majority of burglings or flights with aggression takes place in full day (statistics of the police force). The discreetly enlightened houses of the villages are visited than the enlightened houses hyper-.
the badly designed standard lamps being in direct vision will dazzle the eye, especially at the time of driving of a car.
Trop of lighting encourages the motorists to increase their speed, multiplying the accident risks.
the laser projectors tend to distract the motorists and the aviators.
Disturbance of the biological rates/rhythms by putting out of order our internal clock (awakening, sleep).
the light disturbs the vicinity with impossibility of sleeping with the open shutters (intrusive light).

Costs;

To diffuse more 50 % of the luminous energy produced towards the sky is an energy waste and it is us, the taxpayers who pay the invoice. A study of International Dark- Sky Association showed that in the United States approximately 1,5 billion dollar are thus wasted each year.

Astronomy;

astronomical research is increasingly difficult.
the photographs taken the evening by the astronomers show a yellow bottom of sky because of the light.
the electronic imagery of the sky is disturbed.
Impossibility of looking at the vault of heaven and the starlight night with the naked eye.

Measure

A simple model suggested by Walker makes it possible to calculate the intensity of this halation according to the number of inhabitants of the agglomerations. Thus a synthetic chart of France of luminous pollution was built. One of the goals of this chart is to find the best places to install an astronomical observatory there. Various protocols of measurement were proposed (by of ONG such as the ANPCN and Darksky association) or are being studied. Individual materials appear on the market, of which the “ Sky Quality Meter ” especially conceived for this type of measurement, and tested by P Cinzano, expert recognized as regards measurement of the halations and luminous pollution.

Viable solutions to find and preserve a blacker sky

Prevention

The good sense invites to only light where it is necessary for the sufficient intensity and only when it is necessary. A lighting adapted and of quality as well as a realistic and adapted regulation are also sources of important economies (the town of Lille thus made 35% of economies in one year, all in illuminant better, thanks to éco-powerful lamps and luminaries more ). To decrease the disturbance of fauna and to allow the observation of the night sky, of the effective solutions proved reliable.

Examples of solutions :

Rénover public lighting and private by systematizing the lamp-shade diffusing the light to the bottom, which limits the wasting and the risks of dazzling.

Of flat glasses, diffusing the light less that curved glasses.
To choose an angle of incidence on the ground of 10° or less, when it is possible
Supprimer on-lighting of the frontages and billboards, and to systematically downwards direct it and not towards the sky where the light is lost. To choose colors of lamps having less impact on fauna
To systematize the timers and devices of detection of presence of people, animals or vehicles.
To cut the lighting of the billboards and the buildings after 11 p.m., even earlier except tourist season and in winter.
To encourage the use of the lamps " sodium with low pression" ; cheaper, and facilitating the sight of stars by the astronomers.
To develop the use of emergency lightings and standard lamps with LED (electroluminescent diodes), possibly supplied with solar panels to limit the need to extend the buried cable networks (work damaging the roots of trees)
When the light of the offices cannot be extinct the night, of the blinds, or special films can help the bird to understand that there is an obstacle. Films " anti-collision " (example, in English) can also be effective the day by limiting the mirror effect or the invisibility of the pane.
Finally and especially; to clarify only the places where the need is real by associating the intensity with the need (all the lamps for a round not in the event of strong rain, only one, low and lighting slightly by clear night. It seems that stroboscopic lighting is more effective for safety (in the fog in particular) and that he disturbs less the birds, but he can be perceived like more tiring.

One uses the term Réserve of starry sky, when the whole of these measurements is applied in a systematic way to a territory.

Alternatives

To meet the needs for safety of the motorized vehicles (trucks, cars, bus.) or not motorized (bicycles) provided with an embarked lighting, there exist many systems using of the reflecting devices, i.e. returning towards the transmitter (mobile or not) the received light.

They are adapted perfectly to many needs for indication for objects (kerbs, stakes, posts, feet of panels, rambarde of safety, feet of rounds points, axes or passages or dangerous situations, etc

Not dazzling, the reflecting Dispositif is very effective for safety, while being among the least expensive.

In the countries where snow is abundant, they can be fixed in height on stakes which leave snow.

Discrete in the landscape in diurnal situation (day), they are also those which generate less harmful effects for the night environmental quality.

The returned light can be red, orange, yellow or white according to the color of material used.

The bands of metal, fabrics or reflecting plastic fixed on clothing, shoes and portfolios also largely improve safety of the children, the personnel affected to public works or the monitoring of the roads, railways, airports, channels or other installations at the risk. Beyond the subjects at the risk, these devices can contribute to protect all the objects and all the people exposed to vehicles circulating from night and provided with headlights. Colors fluo are sometimes used (especially useful the day).

Classemement, designations, certifications

The natural park bridges national monument (Utah, the USA) was mid 2007 indicated " first park of the black sky to the monde" , by International Dark Sky Association because it is one of the places of the USA where one sees best the Milky Way. Other sites are protected by regulations, to generally allow the work of an astronomical observatory (ex: Balearic Islands).

The intrusive light; harmful effect and/or pollution?

Definitions:

In the language running, the expression “ intrusive light ” indicates the or not requested nondesired light which penetrates in a part starting from outside via the windows or other parts (glazed or not. In tropical zone, many residences do not have panes) (standard vélux, veranda, glass block, etc).
more generally, for the lighting engineers, in fact the luminous flow would cross a window or an imaginary wall in extreme cases of a property .
the intrusive light is a Nuisance when the enlightened place is a part where one cannot sleep any more normally, or the garden where one would like to contemplate or study stars or other heavenly objects or events. In the United Kingdom, since 2006, a law takes into account this problem with the reason which it can disturb the health of the victims.
It is one of the components of the luminous pollution as soon as this light can disturb the sleep and the health of occupants likely to sleep in a place (room, dormitory, camp-site, hospital, hotel, cell of prison, etc).

One can extend the concept to the pets which undergo this lighting (livestock of zoos or). To occult the windows or openings makes it possible to be protected from this light, but without the organization being able to then agree to the natural rate/rhythm rising and sunsets ( nychthemeral Rythme ).

The concept of intrusive light translates a recent concern, related to the generalization of the night lighting which goes back only to a few decades. It for example is not taken again yet by the dictionary of the standardized vocabulary of the environment (AFNOR). The International commission of lighting nevertheless emitted a standard on the acceptable intrusive light in extreme cases of property . This standard however is not very much used, because not ignored and requiring sometimes complex calculations, in particular for the determination of the intrusive origin of the sources of light (lighting trades, neon signs, street, neighbors, with or without phenomena of reflection on water or a reflective wall, etc).
Il is to be noted that the right tends to evolve/move in its definition of pollution: for example, in the field of water, the Parent directive on water stipulates clearly that a “obstacle with the approval of the environment or other legitimate uses of this last” can be regarded as a pollution.

Cultural, ethical and philosophical dimension

Humanity always lived with and under stars and the constellations which were the reference marks of the calendar, the night reference marks of the shepherds and the sailors well before the invention of the sextants. The stars guided and guide still the men on ground, through the deserts and on sea. evening star , symbolized by star in the comet shape of the Christmas tree is that which guided the king-magi of the Christian tradition. The spangled universe is still the decoration more running of the science fiction, after its splendor was evoked many times by poetry. -->

As alignments testify some to menhirs, prehistoric configurations of sites and historical rows on the stars of the solstices, as the importance to the night sky for all mythologies and number of the religions testify some, as well as the names given to stars and constellations, or the importance which attached civilizations passed to the astronomical phenomena, our ancestors wondered much about the sky and the stars which they very early interpreted and charted. Poetry has also at all times refers to the splendor of the starry sky. “For how long still will we be able to observe the starry sky? ” question the astronomers, but also scientists and humanistic such as Hubert Reeves.

The terrestrial life in its near total, and since 3,7 billion years, is regulated by the alternation of the day and the night. And the hormonal processes which depend on it are localized in the most primitive parts of our brain, which seems to imply that physiological adaptations are not possible at the majority of the species, of which perhaps the Man. However, luminous pollution affects an increasing share of the night sky. If the loss of vision of stars in is an good indicator, at least 75% of the population of planet are concerned, and particularly the townsmen of the rich countries. It deprives to us of the natural beauty of the sky in addition to having certain impacts on fauna and the flora.

Since the years 1970, without denying the contributions of the illumination, various actors wonder about the socio-psychological consequences of the loss of the contact of the man with the Nature, including the night environment and the beauty of the deep sky, of the Milky Way to which an increasing share of the contemporary populations does not have any more access… Until UNO which grants to the starry sky a particular value, like common inheritance of humanity.
Recently, technical solutions considered and locally tested to limit luminous pollution convergent with stakes of Sustainable development, in particular of savings of electricity and gas emissions with greenhouse effect, or in reduction in the ecological Impressed.

Benefit of a luminous fight against pollution

To prevent and decrease luminous pollution would make it possible to improve considerably quality of urban lighting, to reduce the luminous halations, and to save the money of the taxpayers, with possible beneficial effects on health (thanks to the reduction in the luminous intrusion). A suitable lighting system would bring comfort and safety and would avoid the dazzlings due to the urban standard lamps evil designed which send the light directly in the eyes. Perhaps the awakening of these problems by the majority of the cities and the organizations will allow the sensitizing of the population for these harmful purposes and also the improvement the environment (night in particular).

Conclusion

the expression " pollution lumineuse" is scientifically and juridically justified , even if there Indeed exist also harmful effects lumineuses.
, the phenomenon known as “pollution luminous” does not obscure only the sky; it affects indisputably also the animals, the ecosystems and probably the human ones. It contributes to the wasting of energy, the risks related on the production, the transport and the consumption of energy and indirectly to the production of radioactive waste, like with the total climatic modifications via the production upstream of gas with greenhouse effect (with the coal, the oil or gas consumed by the powerplants or for the upstream and the downstream of the nuclear die). The components of the lamps still pose some environmental problems (toxicity, lack of recyclability…)

a situation which worsens (+ 5 % per annum on average) : for approximately 50 years, commercial, electoral stakes and from image have fed a race with lighting, with the plane lights, with the panels, signs and neon signs, advertizing executives or not, who increase the brightness of the night environment continuously, urban and road in particular.

This contributes to disaccustom the Man of the black, and perhaps to generalize and maintain a fear of the black, and consequently with an artificial dependence with the light, sometimes in phobia of the black night. These socio-psychological aspects are complex and can slow down the action of the elected officials and technicians in charge of the questions of lighting, even when they are aware of it. This is why a multi-field approach and écocitoyenne of the problem seem necessary.

the night environment, bearable stake of development can be preserved , including for ethical and esthetic reasons, because the beauty of the starry sky accompanies the Man and its ancestors since good before prehistory and it probably modelled its psychism, as testify some much to myths founders of all the people and religions. A pure and deep night sky and preserved night species are indicators of quality of the development, and part of the natural heritage which can be bequeathed to the future generations, like want it the principles of the bearable development ratified by all the states of planet following the Summit of the Earth of Rio, in June 1992.

Of the simple solutions and available exists (reflecting lamp-shades, timers, LED, detectors, devices, etc). They profitable because are quickly refunded by energy saving. They could moreover have positive impacts on health. Their installation however seem to require an awakening of the problem by the population and her elected officials, as well as a legislation integrating the health issues and of environment, within times compatible with the needs for restoration of the night environment, i.e. very quickly.

Evolutions in progress ; The concrete measures of restoration of the night environment remain rare and specific, but conferences on this topic have been done periodically for 15 years. On the basis of undeniable data and scientific study, modules of formations appear in some countries (schools of engineers or technicians, continuing education, training course ADEME, etc)… and laws, payments or bills appear or were voted since the end of the year 1990 in some countries.

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