Judaism

Bases of the Judaism

The Judaism was seldom, if ever, monolithic in its practices, the central authority not resting on individuals, but on a central text, the Bible of which there exist various interpretations. However, all the currents, old and modern, profess some central precepts:

YHWH is One and Single, Créateur of the Universe, and there is of it no other.
YHWH, remembering Alliance that It had contracted with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, made leave the people Israel of Egypt, where it was remained 400 years.
the Enfants of Israel were elected by YHWH, to be Its people, if they go in His ways. Those were given by God to Moïse on the Mont the Sinai.
C' is precisely this will to go in the ways of God ( Halakha ), to perpetually grant his life according to the precepts of the Torah under conditions changeantes according to the places and the times, which is at the origin of the divergences between the various currents, rather than of the theological divergences.

Most important running Jewish current is the rabbinical Judaïsme, going down from the Judaïsme pharisee, reading the “Torah written” through the prism of the oral Torah, exegetic tradition transmitted orally, received, according to the tradition, of the mouth of Moïse at the time of the gift of the Torah, and compiled in the form of the Talmud S Babylonian and galiléen.
L' authority of this oral law was disputed at the time of the Temples by the Sadducéens, then at 8th century E.C by a movement scripturalist, the Karaïsme. She was ignored Samaritans, as well as Jewish communities too far away from the centers of teaching and diffusion of this law, like the Jews of China, Ethiopia or India. prophets and centrality of Jerusalem.
the Judaism of the Second Temple itself one of is more diversified Jewish history: in addition to the sects the best known ones (Esséniens, Zealoies, Pharisees, Sadducéens,…), it is necessary to add those which one hardly knows but the name: nazaréens, gnostic, Minim (probably first Christians). The Second Temple of Jerusalem and the high priests, theoretically central authority in the Judaism, are rejected by the Juifs Elephantine and the Esséniens. Following the destruction of the Second Temple, only the Judaism pharisee remains, imposing the reading of --> Nevi' im ,

Oral tradition, fixed in writing after the destruction of the Second Temple of Jerusalem, known under the name of oral Torah, that the rabbinical tradition pharisienne then said to hold of Brace.
Le Judaism also professed the arrival of a Oint of God , the Messiah, initially political character and soldier before acquiring a eschatologic dimension more . Thus during the first century, of the Jews which recognized this Messiah in the person of Jesus, gave rise to Christianity. -->

Jewish faith

The Judaism requires more acts that beliefs, if it are not that in God One and Single, creator of the world, liberator of the people in Egypt and prescriber of laws. At the time of Flavius Josèphe, these regulations (mainly the circumcision) are regarded as more determining than religious designs.

However, two centuries later, Talmud, in front of the increase in the professing number of Jews of the new beliefs, like the Dualism, raises the question to see which is of Israel. Under the gréco-Moslem woman influence, declarations of faith appear, having for goal to define the beliefs differentiating the Jews from the not-Jews. These axioms are often defined of opposite course to the other doctrines. One of the lists of article of faith the most known, that of Brace Maïmonide, comprises 13 articles among which one is opposed to the doctrines aristotelician eternity of the world, another with the idea of “New Torah” or change of this one, etc

If the articlees of faith of Maïmonide Brace are currently regarded as obligatory by the orthodoxe Jewish , the not-orthodoxe currents take care not to impose a formula on their faithful, decreasing the number of articles and authorizing multiple inetrprétations. The currents more the progressists, like the Judaism reconstructionnist, do not hesitate to call into question of the principles among most fundamental at the Jews, like the belief in the Revelation or that to be a Peuple elected active until the handing-over in question of the existence of God.

Monotheism

The Torah, “Law of God”

Centrality of the Ground of Israel

See also: Ground of Israel, List of the places saints#Judaïsme, List of the holy places of the Judaism

According to the Torah, God promises with Abraham a ground populated by seven nations canaanéennes, and reiterates this promises with Moïse. In the Deutéronome, Moïse reconsiders the fertility of this ground and the benefits which it represents, precise that God gives to Israel an inhabited ground, and especially that it is by Its will that Israel acquires it, and not by the merit of the people. Quite to the contrary, the people démériterait it that God would drive out it His ground as It drives out in front of them Canaanéens. However, their exile would not be final, and at the end of a peregrination of humiliations and sufferings, God would bring back His people on this terre.
Des special commands refer to the ground of Israel, such as that to live there. The legislation must is conceived there in order to live there at the divine rate/rhythm, by respecting the rest of the seventh day and the rest of the ground of the seventh year; the year following seven seven years cycles, i.e. each fifty years, is a year jubilaire during which the grounds must turn over to their owners and the servants with freedom.

Regarded as inalienable property of the people of Israel, this Holy Land comprises Holy Cities, in the enclosure of which it is interdict to bury deaths, and of the holy places, important centers of the history Jew and Jewish. A particular enthusiasm surrounds Jerusalem, capital rested by king David, where was located the Temple of Solomon, on the Mont of the Temple and where the Sanhédrin sat.

Jewish sovereignty on the ground of Israel is a constant of its history, and the movements armed during the history had only its restoration for goal, including the movement Zionist in 1948.
Toutefois, the Zionism, political movement, is not unanimously accepted by the Jews, so much by monks who regard it as an attempt to exceed the divine will, which can only put a term at the exile, that by not-monks who feel more integrated into their host country, and do not recognize the legitimacy of the State of Israel.

The Messianic Messiah and times

See also: Messiah in the Judaism, Messianic Times

According to the Judaism, the Messiah is a man, resulting from the line of king David, who will lead the Monde to come, one era of peace and happiness, eternal and whose all the nations will profit from the ground. It did not come yet: the fact of having believed in the messianity of Jesus separated the Jews from the first Christians, and certain hassidic Jews are currently suspected of heresy to have affirmed the messianity of Menachem Mendel Schneerson.
Moreover, a certain number of false-Messiahs were isolated throughout the Jewish history, in the light of the criteria referred to above.

However, if Messianic times are a generally shared belief, the opinions on the divergent Messiah, and many are the Jews, in particular the reformed Juifs, which estimate to be able to occur some.

With regard to the world to come, several designs are côtoient in the Judaism, and it in the final analysis occupies only one very additional place there.

The worship

The original worship Jew is pressed mainly on offerings of cattle, birds or of flour in front of the furnace bridge located in the sanctuary. It is ensured by the downward cohanim of Aaron and extensively described in the Livre of Lévitique (Vayiqra). It comprises three daily offerings, of which a oblation of flour, as well as additional offerings at the time of days indicated like holy convocation, of which the new moon, days of assembly and festivals. These days are been unemployed.

However, the prophets criticize this purely ritual worship highly if it does not join with true intentions (Isaïe 1:11 - 18), and consider that the prayer can fulfill its role (Dared 14:2).

The ordinance of the worship, and the impact of the Torah in the daily life, are discussed then furious between priests sadducéens and wise, the first being based on a literal interpretation of the Torah, whereas the seconds trust the received traditions of the ancestors (who would have received them their, and so on to Moïse) and on methods of legalistic interpretation to determine the Halakha (led religious). The point of view of wise carried it after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 EC. and, except for the dissidence karaïte which trusts only personal interpretation, imposed its Halakha: this one developed in the Mishna , then the Talmud S and the rabbinical Littérature later. Various codes were written to determine the general principles as well as Responsa for particular cases. The reference book on the matter is the Shoulhan Aroukh, written at the sixteenth century. However, interpretation continues until our days, Halakha having to take into account the evolution of the company.

Offices of prayers

Celebrations in the Judaism

See also: Celebrations in the Judaism, Fast in the Judaism

The Jewish Calendrier is based on a cycle lunisolaire métonien, according to a method of calculating instituted by Wise the Hillel II, the determination of the month starting from the observation of the the new moon having been abolished with the disappearance of the Sanhédrin.

the Sabbath is one day of weekly abstention, reserved being studied and the prayer. It is inaugurated by the Kiddoush little before the sunset of Friday evening and is concluded by the Havdala at the exit from the stars of Saturday evening.
Il plays an important role, as well in the life as in practice religious, and is accompanied by an important corpus by rites and laws. Thirty-nine classes jobs are prohibited there, among which one counts the writing, the lighting of a fire (and thus of electric current), the cut, drying, the control of a vehicle etc.
Son merry character prevent any demonstration of mourning in this day (is in order not to transgress the sabbath that Jesus was buried one Friday afternoon).
the Sheloshet Haregalim are three festivals of pilgrimage to the Temple of Jerusalem instituted by the Bible. They also correspond to moment-keys of the crop year:

Pessa' H, the “ Jewish Passover ”, commemorates the Exodus, and coincides with the harvest of the orge.
C' is the only festival to be focused on an office with the hearth , the Seder. The produced with the leaven are withdrawn from the house before the festival and are prohibited consumption for its length of time. The bread is replaced by the Matza, unleavened bread.
Shavouot, the Jewish Pentecost , celebrates the gift by Moïse Ten Commands with the Enfants of Israel gathered with the feet of the Sinai mount and the passage of the harvest of the barley to that of wheat. The 7 weeks period (that is to say 50 days and 49 nights) between Pessa' H and Shavouot is called 'Omer and itself is subjected to particular rites.
Souccot, the “Festival of the Huts” commemorates the wanderings of the children of Israel in the desert during forty years and mark the end of the agricultural cycle. Each family must build for the occasion a temporary hut ( Soucca ), in remembering the temporary dwellings used by the Jews during their peregrinations. The men have as a regulation to remain the time of Souccot there, to eat there and from there dormir.
Souccot concludes itself by Chemini Atseret , the setting in fallow of the ground, and Sim' hat Torah, it “(festival of) the Joy of the Torah”, where the annual cycle of Lecture the Torah is concluded to start again immediately afterwards.

the Yamim Noraïm (“Days of Fear” or “Days Frightening”) indicate the 10 days period between Rosh Hashana, Jewish New year, falling the 1st Tishri, and Yom Kippour, the Day of the Atonement, which falls the 10 Tishri:

Rosh Hashana, called Yom Terou' ah in the Bible, is the beginning of the year civil Jewish (the ecclesiastical year starts in the month of Nissan).
Elle mark also the entry during the time of repentance, which finishes ten days later with Yom Kippour.
Yom Kippour, Day of Forgiveness, the holiest day of the Jewish calendar according to the tradition, is celebrated the 10 Tishri. Public holiday even absolute than Sabbath (it for this reason is called Shabbat Shabbaton , Sabbath of Sabbaths), it is devoted to the atonement, the prayer and the fast.

Four other fasts were instituted by the prophets, in remembering the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem. The festival of Pourim was instituted following the events described in the Livre of Esther. The festival of Hanoukka as for it was proclaimed by the Stiffs. Its rites were determined by the rabbis, like two rites mentioned in Talmud: Tou Bishvat, festival of the trees and Tou BeAv, festival of the love and in love one.

Food laws: the Cacheroute

Family purity

Events during the life of a Jewish person

They are events occurring during the life of a person, and who bind it to the community.

the Brith milah, Circumcision, i.e. ablation of the foreskin of the boys at the eighth day of their birth, in reference to the Alliance of Abraham (Genesis 17,11). This rite celebrates the entry of the males in Alliance, and can be done during a ceremony, but also in a hospital under Anesthésie, as long as a specialist, the Mohel is present, and recites a blessing at the time of the cut of the flesh. There is no rite of excision for the little girls.
Zeved habat - Reception of the little girls in Alliance during a ceremony of nomination. This habit, sails very about it at the Sépharade S, is practiced more and more by the Ashkénaze S.
Upsherin - Cut of the hair among boys, built at 3 years, accompanying the gift by the Talit Katan and the first kippa, thus symbolizing the passage of yonek (infant, a little the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon toddler ) to yeled (child).
Bar and Beats mitzva - Passage in the majority religious, of rear na' (na' macaw) with mevougar (mevouguerette) at the 13 years age for the boys, 12 years in the girls, corresponding in the majority Jewish. Mitzva Beats was introduced by Mordekhaï Kaplan, and is not accompanied généralement not of particular rite. On the other hand, it (boy) Bar Mitzva is honoured by leading the office and by reading the weekly section with the Torah. The preparation can take between a few months and two years.
Marriage - the marriage is one moment of great importance in the life. The two ceremonies which compose it, the Kiddoushin (dedications) and the Nissouïn (weddings), were originally celebrated at one year of interval during which the young woman ( kala ), prohibited with her husband as long as the nissouïn had not been pronounced, lived in her parents to prepare with the life of couple. Currently, they are celebrated during the same day, under a bridal platform, the Houppa , which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom ( hatan ) breaks glass with his foot. It is not a question of a tradition, but of a habit (Minhag) aiming at reminding that the joy cannot be complete as long as the Temple will not have been rebuilt.

Death and mourning - mourning holds an excessively important place in the Judaism, and follows a rite very arranged hierarchically.

At the very moment of the death, the relatives of the first degree, joint included, receives the statute of onene . The laws of mourning do not apply yet to them, but all their activities must tend to bury most quickly and most holily the late one, if the situation applies (cf disappearance at sea).

At the time of the burial, the relatives of the first degree, joint included, tears their shirt ( qéri' has ). The male parents with the first degree and the spouse read the endeuillés Kaddish.

During the seven days following the burial, the Shiv' ah , endeuillés remains sitted with same the ground. They are not washed any more (except health reason), do not cut their nails, do not carry shoes, and do not prepare to eat (it is the role of the community to ensure their subsistence): all their thoughts converge towards the died person, whom they cry during three days, and of which they recall the merits during four. Each evening is held a service which they direct, and which is concluded by Kaddish from endeuillés.

the month following the burial is the period of the shloshim (thirty), where approval like the music, the marriage (with festival)… are prohibited.

period the one year, avelut youd Study Bureau 'hodesh (twelve months mourning), is observed for eleven months additional by those which lost their relative. Spent this period, mourning is completed by a visit with the cemetery, and the recitation of Kaddish of endeuillés on the tomb of the late person.

Question of Halakha: Which are the conditions to say that a person is Jewish?

Symbols of the Judaism

Since the thirteenth century about, the symbol of the Judaism is the Star of David who, according to the tradition, was the emblem of the king David. The oldest symbol of the Judaism is the Ménorah , candlestick with seven branches, which was in the Temple of Jerusalem.
In the pediment of the synagogs are also illustrated the Tables of the Law.

Places of worship

Jewish text and texts

The " literature juive" is generally divided into:

biblical literature, i.e. the Jewish gun of the Writings, the ''' T ''' has ''' NR ''' has ''' KH ''' (Torah, Neviim, Ketouvim)
talmudic literature, i.e. of the talmudic time, not being limited to Talmud:
rabbinical Literature, of wise post-talmudic until our days.

Biblical literature

Tanakh is the holiest book for the Jewish people, and the Torah is the holiest part of Tanakh. It was dictated, according to the tradition, in Moïse by God.
The fixing of the biblical Canon was carried out at the time of the Large Parliament: the books inspired by God appear in it, are excluded from it those which come only from human wisdom. The Torah was discussed no as for its divine character, whereas the books of the Prophets as well as the Other Writings were the subject of intense debates.
The Cantillation of the Torah was fixed by the Massorètes.

Talmudic literature

According to Rav Adin Steinsalz, the Torah was subjected to continual a interpretation since it was given to the children of Israel (one can regard Neviim as the first stake of this one). The large one of interpretation was however oral, before being codified. It is about:

the Mishna and its comments.
the Treated minor Tosefta and .
Talmud:

the Talmud of Jerusalem, and its comments.
the Talmud of Babylon, and its comments.

Mishna is the first compilation, followed by Tossefta, which wants to be of it already comment. Laconic and without references, it requires its own interpretation however in order to connect Lois oral and written. This one was carried out in two separate centers of the Jewish spiritual life, Babylon and Galileo, to give Talmud of Babylon and Talmud of Galileo, improperly called " Talmud de Jérusalem" , less studied than the first.
Works of this time not integrated in Talmud were gathered under the term of " Treaties mineurs" , not because of their importance but of their little of volume.
It is around Mishna and of Talmud that primarily teaching in the talmudic institutes nowadays rests.

A exegetic literature develops Talmud parallel to: the Midrash , of which there exist many variations. Talmud sometimes referred there and that certain lesson is found in one and the other.
The Wise ones of Midrash are generally those of Talmud: * midrashic Literature:

Midrash Halakha
Midrash Aggada

Midrash Halakha is a legalistic interpretation. It is based on principles hermeneutics to deduce from it ( lehidaresh ) the substance légale.
Midrash Aggada is a whole of not-normative accounts, of which the goal is to explore the not-legislative parts of the Torah or to facilitate its training, including in the legal part. It is in this category that one arranges certain posterior works pseudepigraphic, like the Pirqei of Rabbi Eliezer .

Rabbinical literature

If it is primarily occupied to codify the laws dispersed in Talmud without apparent organization, the rabbinical literature diversifies, treating poetry, of philosophy, theology or esotericism. An important part is also devoted to the literature polemist, in order to provide for the needs for the Jews taken in a public disputation (of which the spirit is seldom open).

halakhic Literature:

great Codes of conduct to be held with regard to the application of the precepts stated in the ritual Bible and the

the Mishné Torah and its comments.
the Arbaa Tourim and its comments.
the Shoulhan Aroukh and its comments.

Other works halakhic
the Responsa
Various monographs (on the checking of the lungs of the shot down animals, p.e)

Thought and ethical Jewish

the Jewish Philosophy traditional, before the Rebirth, whose great names are, inter alia, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Maïmonide or Gersonide. Philosophy marrane, although at the dawn of the modern thought, often acts as scathing attack against the Jewish tradition. As for the philosophy of the time of the Lights, it is much closer to philosophy than Judaism, although it goes back there to the 20th century under the feather of Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Emmanuel Levinas, or for the more religious elements, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, Richard Rubenstein or Joseph Soloveitchik.
De new approaches of the Judaism was also done day, like that of Mordekhaï Kaplan or Emil Fackenheim.
Il also recently developed a theology post-Holocaust, questioning the " silence of Dieu" , before being interested in the place of the Jew in the world, history and the policy.
the Kabbale, thought Jewish mystic draws his sources in the study of the Acte of Creation and of the Acte of the Tank , whose some passages were retranscribed in certain treaties of Talmud. It is surrounded by secrecies and of mystery, preaches a esoteric reading, even completely original methods of interpretation of the Bible, like the isophépie or the permutation of characters.
Elle proposes a teleological vision of the history, as being related to the Jewish people.
La showpiece of this literature is the Zohar , allotted to Rabbi Shimon bar Yohaï, but of other works, like the Bahir or Iggeret haKodesh do not have to be forgotten. The work of many Masters, like Rav Yehouda Löw or Ramhal are tinted by it.
the Jewish ethics, developed by the movement of the Moussar, will take as a starting point the works by Ramhal, in particular its Messilat Yesharim.

Religious functions in the Judaism

Clergy

Rabbinate

Officiants

Although a Jew can fill by itself the majority of the regulations for the prayer, certain activities, like the reading of the Torah or the haftarot (additional sections drawn from Neviim or Ketouvim), Kaddish (prayer at the end of a study, at the time of a mourning,…), the blessing of the grooms, the thanksgiving after a meal, etc, require the presence of a quorum or Minyan of ten people (10 men for the Orthodoxe ones, and Massortim " less libéraux" ; Massortim " more libéraux" and Réformés makes it possible to the women to join the minyan). -->

the officiant ( shalia' H tsibbour or sha" ts) is often a rabbi. However, this role can fall to any member of the community which one wishes to honor, in so far as it reached the religious majority. The knowledge of the prayers is highly wished but nonimperative: at the time of the offices according to the death of a close relation, it one is often endeuillé itself (or a male close relation of endeuillée) which directs the office, that it knows it or not. The role of the officiant is not to be a " intermédiaire" between the community and God, but to facilitate the collective prayer, while allowing for example those which cannot request to answer in public, which is counted to them as if they had done all the prière.
Reformed authorize the women to direct the prayer, this role being exclusively reserved for the men at the Orthodoxe ones and Massortim " more traditionnels".
the Hazzan (cantor) is a vocalist holding the role of officiant of ba' Al korè (reader of the Torah), or, more rarely, of " choriste". Chosen for its beautiful voice, its knowledge of the liturgy and the cantillation, like its knowledge of the direction of the prayer and the sincerity of its interpretation, it is sometimes about a virtuoso of the choir singing, even of the opera. Any community does not have its hazzan not appointed.
the Baal korè (main of the Reading) is the person reading the weekly section of the Torah, role that any man (or woman in the liberal forms of the Judaism) having reached his majority religious and able to read the weekly section can fill.

It is frequent that the same person cumulates these various functions, or that several people able to take up these duties " relaient" during the various offices.

The Gabbaï or Chamach

Gabbaï takes up the duties of the verger, inviting the various people to read the Torah, designating the officiant, dealing with the maintenance of the synagog and making sure of its frequentation.

Other specific religious positions

the Dayan is a rabbinical judge, i.e. an expert rabbi in Jewish legislation; he directs a Beth DIN (rabbinical court), slicing in the litigations financial, matrimonial, or of conversions to the Judaism, in charge of the handing-over of the Guett (act of divorce').
the Mohel is an expert as regards circumcision, applying the regulation of the Brith milah in the respect of the rites.
the Shohet is a ritual cutter, charged to cut down the animals so that they are cachères. Expert in laws and prayers of demolition, it must be trained by another shohet , to be in regular contact with a rabbi, in order to be held informed current standards, and to cut down the animal with the intention to do it according to the rites prescribed in the Torah.
the Mashgia' H (supervisory) in cacheroute must supervise the manufacture of goods and food in order to establish to them cacheroute and to certify it. He must also supervise the sho' het. It can be a question of an expert in these laws, or of a person under the supervision of an expert rabbi in these laws.
the Sofer is a scribe, writing the rollers of the Torah, the Téfiline (phylactères) and of the mezouzot (parchments applied to the lintels of the doors), the ketoubot and the guittin (divorce and marriage certificates, respectively) according to traditional penmanship while following a very precise diagram.
the Rosh yeshiva or " Gaon " - of talmudic academy is a director, versed in the Talmud, and holder of the higher years of the Yeshiva.
the Mashgia' H in a yeshiva is an expert of the Moussar (ethical Jewish), and professor of the courses in this matter, taking care of the spiritual and emotional wellbeing of the students of Yeshiva.

Conversion with the Judaism

The Judaism does not express any inclination of Prosélytisme. It can accommodate the adult individual who asks to convert after having lengthily examined his motivations, but will not in no case to request it. The rabbis require a strong motivation and a sincere adhesion with the Torah at those which wish to convert. Thus conversion cannot have for only reasons the satisfaction of a Jewish spouse and his family.

Some conversions of group, more or less spontaneous, mark out apparently the history but they can correspond, contrary, with the assimilation partial with the surrounding populations of cut Jewish groups their traditions (legends of the " Ten Tribus" disappeared):

the conversion of the Jébuséens, under David,
that of the tribe Idumée of the Hérode, under the Hasmonéens,
that of People S Ural-Altaic like the Khazars of Russia.
after the end of the Roman Empire, that of part of the Frank Ripuaire S and Souabe S,
that of Berber S (Djeraouas of the Aurès and Nefoussas of Tripolitaine),
that of the Falasha S of Ethiopia,…

See too

Jewish • Hebrew • Current Jews
of the Judaism
History of the Jewish people • Jewish Culture • Jewish communities
Torah • Neviim • Ketouvim • Talmud • Cabal
abrahamic Religion • compared Religion
Anti-semitism

Zionism

Philosophical: Philon of Alexandria, Maïmonide, Baruch Spinoza, Brace Mendelssohn, Hans Jonas, Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Emmanuel Levinas, Benny Levy, Maurice-Ruben Hayoun
historical Theologists: Isaac Louria, Rachi de Champagne, Maïmonide, Juda Löw Ben Bezalel, Maharal of Prague, Elijah Ben Solomon (the Gaon de Vilna), Israel Ben Eliezer (the Baal Shem Tov); Sabbataï Tsevi
contemporary French Authors: Marc-Alain Ouaknin, Gilles Bernheim, Armand Abécassis, Manitoban

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References

External bonds

Judaism and Jewish cultures (''' France 5 ''')
Small treaty for ''' to explain the Judaism with the not-Jews ''', by Claude Riveline.
''' Akadem.org ''' site of conferences on line on all the subjects touching with the Judaism
List of the Jewish museums in the world
''' Lamed.fr ''' site on the Judaism
'' the Arch '', monthly magazine of the French Judaism

French bibliography (to be supplemented by the bibliography of the quoted books)

Herve Taïeb, the Bible More precisely ISBN 2-9514742-0-2
, Valéry Rasplus Judaism the Light proof. Critical strategies of Haskalah , in Hitch , n° September 17th, th and th 2006
Josy Eisenberg, a history of the Jews ISBN 2-253-01384-6
Jacques Attali, economic History of the Jews
Sylvie Anne Goldberg (to dir.), encyclopedic Dictionary of the Judaism , Books, Robert Laffont, 1996 ISBN 2-221-08099-8
Rav Elie Lemmel, Ashkénazes, sépharades and Co , Lamed.fr
Maurice-Ruben Hayoun, the Judaism , ISBN 2-200-34244-6

Be-X-old: Юдаізм Simple: Judaism Zh-min-nan: Iû-thài-kàu

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