Context and warning

Appearance of the virus H5N1 in 1997 then its return in 2003, followed by an extension to about fifty country in 3 years, after the emergence of other diseases of animal origin (SARS, Ebola, Mad cow.) D-attracted the attention of the scientists and the public on the history of the avian flu.

“ Until this spring, one had never noted mortality related to a highly pathogenic virus influenza in the avifauna ” could one read in a technical note of the union (French) of the federations of hunting on the avian flu (August 30th, 2005). Actually, the chroniclers of the past quote many examples of brutal and important mortalities of birds. Some of them seem to be able to be ascribable to the highly pathogenic avian flu or the Maladie of Newcastle. The virus grippal can (according to the stocks and sub-types considered and the immunizing history of the populations that it infects) touch the birds, the Man and/or other mammals. It is thus delicate to try to make of it the human history or animal. This article rather has as an aim the history of epizooties, while announcing the moments when a virus with characteristics epidemic or pandemic could have passed from the animal to the Man or conversely.

the ecoepidemiologic history of the grippaux viruses is complex and delicate because ;

- the transmission of the influenza, of the birds to the man, is perhaps very old. however the influenza does not leave deformations or characteristic traces considered detectable on the sick bones of individuals or having survived the disease. In addition the fossils of flying birds are preserved particularly badly because of brittleness of their bones and feathers, the more so as the corpses of birds are generally quickly consumed by organizations necrophagous. Perhaps
the influenza dates from the beginnings of the breeding, but it could also be quite former in our ancestors humanoïdes and mammals, but the ARN and the viruses are too fragile to fossilize or resist time and to allow studies of paleovirology based on their possible fossil presence.
One can even imagine that a virus of the HxNy type affected already the dinosaurs, but such assumptions remain only pure conjecture as long as they are not supported by scientific evidence. It is thus at the traditional historical period, i.e. corresponding to the writing that our knowledge is limited.
- scientific and historical descriptions precise on the avian diseases are rare before the end of the XIXe century (1880), even if many documents of file make it possible to identify or suspecter diseases of passed by comparing their symptoms or ecoepidemiologic features with contemporary Zoonose S. :
- the old denomination of the diseases is not reliable.
- In term of symptomatology, the bird is rather little “expressive”

Ancient or medieval descriptions thus do not make it possible to identify the avian plague with certainty. The chroniclers however kept the trace of sometimes impressive epizooties whose retrospective study can be useful for the comprehension of the ecoepidemiology of the influenza with Influenza virus has, B or C.

The first descriptions of human influenza

Hippocrates towards 400 before J.C describes an epidemic prevailing in the North of ancient Greece, characterized by coughs followed in particular of pneumonias. But it could also be a question of the whooping-cough.
Vers 1173-1174, of more precise descriptions evokes the influenza such as we know it.

Diseases of the bird, less better described?

They are not those which were best described by the chroniclers, whereas others zoonoses were it with precise details as of antiquity (the rage of the dog for example). Thus Virgile it precisely described the symptoms of the scale of the sheep, or the bovine Peste.

If these diseases were described better than of the avian diseases, one can see several reasons there:

  1. the poultry was only one supplement (the word Basse-cour still has a pejorative direction), whereas the bovines offered meat, milk, grease, leather and manure, like their labor force. Their excrements were an auxiliary fuel.
  2. the sheep provided as for him in addition to its meat and its leather, of milk and its invaluable wool.
  3. the horse provided its labor force, contributed to the prestige of its owner and was essential to the armies;

Remark : The pigeons were also important for the armies. They by this way could contribute to make circulate the parasites and pathogenic. (see on this subject the article Pigeon of 1914-1918)

Ancient sources of data

The birds always fascinated. Bodies of professional observers studied them (until dissecting them) attentively to produce the omens among Romans, and before them at the Greeks and Babylonian. The geese and ducks were represented by the Egyptians. These observers left useful information for the historians of the diseases.

The first descriptions animal infectious illness

  • In 323 before JC, a very important mortality accompanied by nervous symptoms is announced by Plutarque which notes an erratic behavior and the death of many corbels in Babylon (90 km in the south of current Baghdad, Iraq) in spring of the 323 av. JC year. This mortality was recently allotted by two American virologists to the fever of the Western Nile (or “West Nile Virus”) which according to them the same year would have also killed King Alexandre the Large one, if one judges some with the brought back symptoms (encéphalite worsened by flask paralyzes). Alexandre returned then to Babylon while returning from India. He would have died front on June 10th, 323 JC.), 2 weeks after the primary symptoms. In this case, the vector was probably a mosquito.

The first descriptions of animal influenza

Jean BLANCOU in 2005, on France Culture recalled some historical data little known, quoting work of Charles Frederic Heusinger (3) and of George Fleming (2)

human joint Mortality, of the cattle, and birds on the continent of Europe .

The chroniclers of Antiquity preserved the memory of it, for some episodes marking;
- in 1200 av. J. - C.,
- in 430 av. J. - C., (“ Plague of Athens ”),
- in 218 av. J. - C.,
- in 43 av. J. - C. (described by Virgile) etc (Source:)

avian Mortalities

  • Of many chroniclers of the the Middle Ages, and as of the 7th century brought back episodes of massive avian mortalities in the poultries (or pigeons, probably often domesticated or semi-domesticated).
- in 671: massive epidemic mortality of various species of farmyard in England; but concomitant to a massive mortality of wild birds “ the small and large birds fell dead (…) and it is hardly if one could still see a magpie, a crow or another bird ” brought back a chronicler of Magdeburg;
- in 1578: In fact the hens die in Paris;:
- in 1614: An epidemic kills the men into Bohemian, whereas the hens which “ met in 6 or 7, put the heads together, fell to ground and would die ” (3);
- in 1656, it is a “ enormous mortality of pelicans in the Antilles ” (3) which impresses West-Indian;
- in 1714: The pigeons of Paris are decimated by “ small pox ”. One decides to kill them all, believing “ that they transported the virus in the men and the ewes ” (3);
- of 1718 to 1721: The geese are decimated in 1718 and 1719 in Silesia, with symptoms which touch also the Cigogne S which die in mass in 1721 (the corpses of the large birds are easy to see, it had perhaps there also mortalities in small birds?). Let us note that this episode corresponds at the end of a 2 year old war (the third) of Austria against the Turks of 1716 to 1718).
- in 1720: The too many geese, spoiling the Rough grazing and the meadows by their dejections, cause a great mortality in the cattle. By stop of the local police, it is defended with each household of Dombrot-on-Squirrel fur (in the the Vosges) to nourish more than 12 geese in addition to oisons, and to lead them and keep in the Versaine S, under penalty of an almond of 5 FR. barrois.
- in 1763: avian epizooty in all Europe, allotted to the foot-and-mouth disease;
- in 1769: in Hanovr E, the geese are decimated;
- in 1774: according to the Gazette of health (February), 600 geese were found died on the banks of the Meurthe in Lorraine (after diarrheas and giddinesses);
- in 1789: a serious epizooty (infectious illness with lesions of breathing apparatuses and the intestine) touches this time hens of Italy of North (3). ;
- in 1830: new European epizooty, allotted to the human cholera;
- of 1830 to 1831: Waves of avian mortality (allotted to the human Cholera) follow one another in all Europe, starting from the Duchy of Poznen in Poland (for the most serious cases) (3): “ the attacked first were, in general, the geese, then the ducks and the turkeys, the last the hens. There were some who had the diarrhea, they started to limp (…) could not go any more, rested without being able to be raised (…) and died suddenly (…) ; The disease touches also wild ducks of the Lake Golpo ”. In 1831, the disease gains Moravie and Silesia: “ the hens, the ducks and the geese were suddenly attacked (…), became sad, did not eat more, the head swelled, became blue and soon death entered ”;
- in 1841: “an amazing quantity of wild ducks, the majority died, were rejected by the sea at the coasts of the departure of the Moors (…) ” (3);
- of 1880 with 1900: successive waves of mortality in the poultry, often ascribable to the true avian plague;
- in 1948: very probable cases of avian plague in France (hens, turkeys and ducks)

Extent of mortalities:

Few indices make it possible to quantify the number of birds of breeding or savages dead or sick, but of the texts evoke hecatombs of wild birds, the disappearance of the songs of the cocks, the silence which replaced the song of the birds, and especially the stink of the corpses.

These indices reported to some recoveries, especially in Europe at the XVIIe century and more still at the XVIIIe century let think than of the very large quantities of birds were touched by these epizooties.

In 1841: “ an amazing quantity of wild ducks, the majority died, were rejected by the sea at the coasts of the departure of the Moors (.), the total mass of the birds taken could go up to 20.000 ” (3);

In North America

In 1783-84, many farmers are touched by a very large epizooty which will justify the demolition of 11 million chickens, quantifies enormous for the time. (Source J. Blancou)

Explanations given by the medieval chroniclers

Concerning mortalities of wild birds, fault of knowing the modes of action and transmission of the viruses, and perhaps within sight of the hemorrhagic symptoms or of the oedemas, the contemporary authors of these avian mortalities often allotted them to wars opposing birds of different species or the same species.

Ainsi in 571 in “ has General Chronological History off the Air ” one reads that “ on September 24th, there be a large combat and a hecatomb of wild birds ”.

In Ireland, the Annals off Clonmacnoise keep the memory of a battle in which in year 942, the gulls and crows would have entretuées themselves. They are the crows (corbels?) who lost leaving thousands of corpses on the ground (but perhaps the corpses of gulls died at sea or little were not found). : “ one attended a quarrel between the marine and terrestrial birds with Clonvicknose, during which in fact the corbels were massacred ”; Crows and corbels eat readily the corpses of other animals or the sick birds and can be thus infected.

  • In 1366, in England, according to Short, one supposed avian war would have opposed sparrows, and causes a human epidemic: “ this year, occurred also a great quarrel between sparrows, which turned in an arranged battle during which innumerable combatants lost the life. It followed from there an important mortality at the human beings, of which much was found died the morning, whereas they had lain down in good health the day before ” (2).

  • In Italy, the chroniclers describe a generalized war opposing this time of many species of birds, followed by a stink such as the inhabitants temporarily had to leave the area. (One can be certain only it acts of the avian plague, but of important mortalities the chronicles of these times marked).

The dates of all these “battles” were raised by Fleming (2).

In these last cases, the highly pathogenic bird influenza can be suspectée within sight of the symptoms and certain ecoepidemiologic characteristics, in particular with epizooty starting in geese or the ducks which one knows today that they are very likely with the virus. The swan seems or little not evoked, but perhaps its populations were they already decimated by hunting.). In two cases, the chroniclers themselves note a concomitance between avian epizooty and human epidemic;

- in 1366 in England at wild birds,
- then 248 years later (in 1614) into Bohemian at poultries,

Retrospective epidemiology; a delicate science

Retrospective epidemiology is a difficult science:
  • “One does not know if the plague of Justinien were really the plague” points out Norbert GUALDE.
  • epizooty were current but they seemed completely circumscribed, even inside Europe, perhaps because the most sensitive birds would die quickly without the virus having time to be diffused much. One does not know by the files of panzootie (a zoonose which would be propagated in all the continents) in the past.

First reliable data:

At the beginning of the XIXe century, the reports/ratios on the avian plague are done more precise (the true avian plague will be characterized only at the end of the 19th century). The data epidemiologic will better and better be documented, in particular after the creation of GOOSE, with in the Netherlands in 2003, a zoonose involving the demolition of million poultries, at a cost from approximately 1 billion euros.

Persistent uncertainties on the reserve of the virus and its vectors.

The avian origin of pandemias is itself only one assumption, that Barbara Dufour, veterinary surgeon, have on France-culture in 2005 presented like most probable (following restockings with human virus, possibly - it is still an assumption here - via the pig).
In 2003, FAO recalled already: “No obviousness up to now indicates that the wild birds are the source of these epizootic eruptions of the highly pathogenic virus of avian flu H5N1. The wild birds should not be eliminated”. This message was pointed out many times.

Some however readily and a little quickly accused into 2004/2005 the migratory birds like principal vector of diffusion of Virus H5N1 HP, but that was not and remains only one plausible assumption, to show. One was unaware of still at the end of 2005 if the birds could carry at long distances the highly pathogenic virus. (On the affected areas, the birds captured around the dead birds were not carrying the H5N1, and one then found few carrying wild birds, even none on the migratory main roads).

at the beginning of 2006, the share of responsibility for migrating is still not clear.
The extensions observed in Thailand and in Vietnam, then in Africa, and Romania in June 2006 more clearly seem to show the human transport of the poultry or the traffics of birds (displacement licit or illicit of animals from time immemorial was a major factor of propagation of epizooties. The wild birds are the natural basin of the grippaux viruses, but generally slightly pathogenic). Epizooties seem to develop along the roads, even railways (Transsibérien), more than along the axes of avian migration, and with the dates their correspondent. FAO spent 2006 concluded that the independent factor of risk was rather the industrial avicolous breeding and the transport of poultries or by-products contaminated.

Even epizooties of the Middle Ages and posterior could to some extent at least be related to human activities (cf breeding, transport of the virus by the poultries and the armies, use of animal and human excrements contaminated like manure, absence of treatment of waste water before rejection in the medium, avian solid masses displacement of populations following the great drainings of peat bogs, marshes and valleys wet, etc).

Attitude of the Man vis-a-vis the epidemics

The refusal is a constant of the epidemics pointed out Norbert GUALDE in 2005. One could say of it as much the search for a scapegoat, possibly selected among the human ones when the zoonose passes to the Man (cf Black Death or AIDS for example).

When the Chinese scientists described the avian flu in a natural reserve, the Chinese authorities initially denied, as they did for the SARS. The avicolous sector did not call in question some practical at the risk (use of droppings, feathers, transport of chicks or ducklings without sufficient measurements of biosecurity, hypersélection, impoverishment genetics, etc).

In the recent past, the epidemic i.e. the diffusion (and not appearance of pathogenic) almost always seems to be able to be related to the human activity (voyages, activity, trade, traffic, food, sexual, of breeding or commercial practices at the risk, penetration of the primary forests, introduction of species or transgenes…).

The study of human corpses preserved in the cold grounds, or of the parts of autopsies preserved in paraffin did not make it possible yet to know with certainty the origin of the Spanish flu virus, but the available data (several variable of the reconstituted virus pandemic) let think that virus H1N1 of 1918 could be directly last of the bird to the man before being transported in particular by the military troops in the world).

One does not know where the virus hides between the episodes of epidemics. For the bird flu, an assumption is that a permanent reserve of virus is maintained in north where it can be preserved in the cold, in cold water several lasting month (not of UV at the time of the long polar night).

The migratory birds are infected when they are in North in summer (ex 25%) but the same population of birds arrived in the south in winter does not carry almost any more a virus. (The carriers died before arriving and/or the birds cured).

The virus is famous evil to preserve itself “in warm water and brackish and salted water; it is preserved well in fresh water and in the cold” Barbara Dufour (2005) says.

Recent data on the commensaux ones of the man

In 1918, one noted a conjunction of mortality in the man and the pig during the epidemic.
Concernant the cat-like ones recently touched;
  • One knew that the cats could occasionally be touched by Bird influenza
  • In Asia, a zoo sheltering approximately 500 tigers presented an epidemic in these tigers (nourished with dead birds of avian plague). This situation was very particular; the concentration of tigers and the mode of food were not comparable with what would occur in nature.
  • the contamination was probably done by the nostrils when the tiger licks itself while eating, but the Mouche could also transport the virus.
  • Of the flies could be vectrices (many species eats or reproduces on the meat, the eyes of animals, their excrements, or the Déchet S of Abattoir, or hatches in the sewers where avian and human excrements can coexist. Certain species live in Sédiment S likely to be contaminated by Fiente S, and there exist breedings of maggot made with excrements of bovines or pigs. This insect is consumed by many birds. Flies were found carrying the virus in Indonesia, then with the Japan, according to a published study in August 2006 (Source: )
  • One does not find traces of massive mortality the cat-like ones in 1918-1919, but that does he want to say that there was not of it? … (It seems that the mice, very appreciated the cat-like ones and raptors could be sensitive to the virus pandemic; they are it in experiments with the reconstituted virus. It is possible if they hide in their burrows to die which they have at the time escaped to the attention)
Several episodes related to the dog, with an emerging virus, in the USA.

To include/understand the past for better envisaging the future?

It is one of the functions of the History.

It is urgent to include/understand the ecology of the virus for better protecting themselves some, but without forgetting that the context of 2006 is not comparable any more even with that of the last pandemia; Thus, in 1968, there was in China:

  • 800 million Chinese (against 1 billion in 2005)
  • 50 million pigs (against 500 million in 2005)
  • 120 million chickens (against 13 billion to 14 billion in 2005)

The industrial breeding, intensive and mondialized of chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks genetically very close now offers an ideal compost of culture for the bird flus.

The weight of the populations and their relative richness by continent and country has evolved/moved much for two centuries.

The emergent diseases and nosocomiales gained much in importance since 1968. The AIDS, from its effects on immunity seems to be able to accelerate a pandemia.

Only the rich countries can cut down tens of million chickens of a blow, without socio-economic crisis or impacts on the health of people.

One thus aims vaccination, but like last barrier: “To vaccinate is to abdicate”, because is probably to preserve the virus for very a long time, and that forces to vaccinate without stop each new generation of chicken (does one Want, can one and must one vaccinate 13 billion chickens several times per annum at a rate of approximately 1 euro per chicken?), in addition, at mid the 2006, the vaccine-prototype is only not very effective and cannot be produced in sufficient quantity to vaccinate more than 1,5% of the planetary population.

  • One cannot in addition reasonably consider a final world eradication in particular because of the natural basin which are immense and of the high capacity of adaptation of the grippaux viruses.

The specialists point out that according to the virus or sub-type in question, according to the nature of the epidemic or pandemia, various human groups will be more or less affected: In 1918 and 1919, the Spanish influenza made hecatombs in the peaceful one (not of immunity to the virus). And in Europe mortality instead of a curve in “U” had the shape of “W” with an intermediate peak of mortality of young people of 15-25 years. And mortality was very abnormally higher at the men compared to the women. (note: the woman has a more effective immunity, but pays it by the autoimmune diseases which touch it: more 80% of the victims of these diseases are women).

Primary source: French radio broadcast of FRANCE-CULTURE which invited us on September 27th, 2005 to go up in time to clarify the situation of 2005. While leaving (and while speaking) in any case initially about the plague of the birds.

With (thank you with them):

  • Barbara DUFOUR, veterinary surgeon at House-Alfort/AFSSA.
  • Jean BLANCOU, veterinary surgeon and microbiologist, old directing of GOOSE, vice president then president of the Academy Veterinary surgeon de France, (author of a “History of the monitoring and control of the transmissible diseases animal”, GOOSE, August 16th, 2000) work which analyzes the methods used by various people, to recognize and manage the zoonoses.
  • Norbert GUALDE, pr. of immunology, university of Bordeaux 2.

More: 1. Blancou J. - History of the monitoring and the control of the transmissible animal diseases. International office of epizooties, Paris, 2000,366 p.

2. Fleming G. - Animal plagues: to their history, natural and prevention. London, Chapman and Hall, 1871,548 p.

3. Heusinger c.f. Searchs for compared pathology - Cassel at H. Hotop; vol. I, 1853,674 p. and vol. II, 1853, DXLIX p.

4. Marr J.S. & Callisbert C.H. - “Alexander the Great and Wets Nile Virus Encephalitis” Emerg.Infect.Dis., 2003,9:1599 -1603.

See too

External bonds

  • Text of Jean Blancou, Pdt Academy veterinary surgeon de France: http://academieveterinaire.free.fr/fiche/historique.html

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