Greek Sculpture

The sculpture is probably the most known aspect of the ancient Greek art , that which for a contemporary expresses best the beautiful ideal and the plastic perfection. It is the first of arts of the Antiquité to seek to free itself from the mimetic constraint, of the faithful representation of nature.

Only a weak part of the Greek sculptural production reached us. Many masterpieces described by the ancient literature from now on are lost or extremely mutilated, and a great part is known for us only by copies, more or less skilful and faithful, Roman epoch. Many was restored by Western sculptors, Renaissance at our days, sometimes in a direction quite different from the work of origin: a Discobole is transformed thus into dying Gladiateur, such god receives the attributes of such other, the legs of such statue are grafted with the chest of such other.

Materials

The majority of the Greek sculptures which arrived at the modern era are out of stone, generally in white Marbre. Under Antiquity, nevertheless, the Greeks are far from supporting this material. It is then in competition with the Bronze, the technique chryséléphantine, but also the Argile and the Bois.

Wood

Wood is used mainly with the antiquated time, to carry out the xoana , coarse figures, slightly anthropomorphic, characteristic of the pre-Olympic religion. Most famous that of Orthia, is then identified with Artémis, in the sanctuary Spartan of Artémis Orthia. The only city of Sparte includes/understands, according to Pausanias (III, passim), more than 15 xoana . Some of these statues are equipped or carry weapons, witness the xoanon of Aphrodite out of weapons with Sparte.

The antiquated Greeks also resort, mainly at seventh century BC, the technique of the sphyrélaton, attested already at the Hittites and the Égyptiens: it is a question of covering with hammered bronze plates a wood heart. It is thus the case of statuettes of worship representing Apollon, Artémis and Léto, found in the sanctuary of Dréros, in Crete, going back to eighth century BC.

However, wood is also employed for more refined work. Thus trunk of Cypsélos, Tyrant of Corinth of 655 approximately with 625. Pausanias provides a detailed description (V, 17,5 and following) of the trunk, exposed to Olympie until the first centuries after Jesus-Christ, before it disappears. The trunk is made of Cèdre decorated figures in Ivoire and Or, and represents scenes of the Trojan War.

Because of brittleness of the support, few wood sculptures reached us. One can quote a fragment of votive statuette, high of 28 cm, found with Samos, perhaps reproducing the statue of the worship of Héra. It is currently exposed to the museum of Archeology of Samos (n° H41).

Terra cotta

detailed Article: Greek Figurines out of terra cotta

Clay is a material frequently used for the clothes industry of votive statuettes or idols, since the Minoan Civilization until the hellenistic time. At eighth century BC, in Béotie, one thus manufactures “idol-bells”, female statuettes with mobile legs: the head, small compared to the remainder of the body, is perched at the end of a long neck, while the medium of the body is very full, in the shape of bell. At the beginning of eighth century BC, the tombs known as “of hero” receive hundreds, even thousands of small figurines, with the rudimentary figuration, generally representing characters with the raised arms, i.e. gods in Apothéose.

Thereafter, the terra cotta figurines lose their religious character. They represent from now on characters of the daily life. With, the figurines known as “of TANAGRA” testify thus to a refined art. At the same time, cities like Alexandria, Smyrna or Tarse produce in abundance of the grotesque figurines, representing individuals with the deformed members, the eyes exorbities, raising grins and contorsionnant themselves. These figurines are also made out of bronze.

The terra cotta is employed however little for the large statuary. The most known exception is the Zeus removing Ganymède of Olympie, carried out towards 470 av. J. - C. In this case, the terra cotta is painted.

The chryséléphantin: of ivory and gold

The most expensive material is also the most appreciated Greeks. It consists of ivory a plated wood heart to represent the flesh, and gold to represent clothing. The most known examples are the statues (lost) of Athéna Parthénos to Athens or of Zeus in Olympie (one of the seven wonders of the world), both achievements of Phidias.

Few vestiges remain of this statuary: the works carried out according to this technique are fragile. At the time hellenistic already, the inventories of the treasures of the temples of Délos announce that a piece of gold was detached from the statue chryséléphantine from Apollo. Moreover, ivory and gold, invaluable materials, tending to being torn off and recovered. We preserve three heads and of the fragments life size, discovered with Delphes under the sacred way, dating from the middle of sixth century BC.

The ivory is also worked only. Cut defenses of elephant obliges, the production limits itself to statuettes. The first are subject to the Eastern influence. Four of them, appearing of the nude women, were found in the cemetery of the Céramique, in Athens; they go up with 735 - 720 av. J. - C. Thereafter, the work of the ivory moves away from the Eastern model; the statuettes are decorated noble metals. Thus of a dancer, element of a zither of pageantry, found in Samos in the sanctuary of Héra, dating from the beginning of the VII E

Metal: bronze with the money

After the chryséléphantin, metal, in particular bronze: the Bronze (but also of ternary and quaternary alloys) is the material more appreciated Greeks. Abundantly employed at the time Minoan or mycénienne, its technique was lost during the centuries known as “obscure”. The Greeks again learn it in contact with people the Middle East and from Egypt. The work of the cast iron full limiting initially size of the parts. One resorts to the mixed technique of the sphyrélatos to mitigate this disadvantage. The votive horses of the geometrical time resort to another subterfuge: the artists use thick wire and sheets convex to appear the various parts of the animal.

At the any end of sixth century BC is discovered by the Rhoïcos sculptor the technique of the cast iron to wax lost on negative (or " in creux"), palliative with the technique on positive, allowing to preserve the original model and the mould and to have a thickness of bronze more regular and more fine, therefore less problems with cooling. This method, according to Pausanias, would be borrowed from the Egypt, but this point remains very disputed. Thanks to this innovation, the work of the sculptor moves: it becomes, in the sources, the " plastes" , the modeller, and can complete a work definitely more virtuoso. Consequently, bronze becomes the material of predilection of the sculptors, who in general seem to have been also the founders.

The process follows several stages: a model exactly resembling the desired figure east creates by the sculptor then cut out in several pieces. A mould is then built around each piece; this stage is paramount, since it is thanks to it that the sculpture will have its final aspect. The core then is removed, and preserved, but the Greeks do not seem for to have duplicated their sculptures as much, contrary to the Romans. The mould is then tablecloth of wax. For this stage, several processes are used: beating, i.e. the nappage by liquid wax, the application to the hand or the brush. One introduces then a core out of refractory ground, then the first mould is removed. The cast iron continues then like a cast iron with wax lost on positive: wax channels being used with the bronze supply and the evacuation of wax and gases its additions, then a fireclay mould includes the whole. Moulded is heated to evacuate wax and to cook it before running molten bronze there. The unit must be then cooled, the statue released and engraved cold, then patinated or waxed.

The use of voluntary patinas in ancient Greece is still very problematic for the historians of Article.

In addition to similar bronze and alloys, the sculptors use several other metallic materials, in particular to give polychromy to their statues by incrustations. Thus the lips are generally in an alloy very rich in copper, therefore very red. Until the middle of the 5th century, the eyebrows, the blood and the points of the centres of the naked men are encrusted in this same material. It also happens that the teeth are plated of money, as in the case of the Aurige de Delphes (where they are however not visible), and a finger coming from the Acropole of Athens as attests veracity of the account of APusanias it speaks about silver nails. As for the eyes, it happens that they are the work of a special craftsman, as the sources for the Roman period attest it (the craftsman is called oculus faber ). The ocular sphere, out of marble, ivory, limestone or white molten glass is hollow to slip the iris in, quartz molten glass there or rock crystal, which comprises to him even a cup where to place the pupil, in a different coloured glass or out of obsidian. The whole can be maintained by metal arches. The incrustations of the iris and the pupil entirely do not fill up the cavity which is intended to them, so that the light can play with. Very fine nuances can be obtained, as in the case of a head of hellenistic child coming from Olympie whose iris is in a brown molten glass with purplished reflections.

Marble

Periods and styles

  • the antiquated period , energy of at the end of sixth century BC;

  • the first classicism , represented by sculptors like Phidias, Myron or Polyclète, at fifth century BC;
  • the second classicism , period dominated by Praxitèle and Lysippe, which extends from fourth century BC to the reign of Alexandre Large the;
  • the hellenistic Period , whose emblematic works are the Venus de Milo, the Groupe of Laocoon of the Vatican or the Victoire de Samothrace, which goes from dead from Alexandre in 323 av. J. - C. until the Roman domination .

These four periods correspond to different styles more than with geographical spaces.

Indeed, although generally realized in continental Greece, antiquated and especially traditional works were largely spread by the maritime trade and the colonies of Grande Greece, fond of delicacies of works of their ground of origin. As one can note it for example with Pompéi, the catastrophe of the year 79 made it possible to find as of the 18th century of the works of the traditional time imported of Greece, which contributed to the collections of Borghèse (for example the Gladiateur Borghèse) and of the museum of Naples (Apollo citharède, Adonis), but which still made Campanie a traditional Greek space at the 1st century of the Christian era.

On the other hand, hellenistic works are more often produced locally, in particular in Asia Mineure (Pergame) or in North Africa (Alexandria, Carthage).

Antiquated period

The antiquated period (700-480 av JC) is characterized by a great simplicity of the forms and postures, often symbolic systems, of which the most typical expression is found in the kouroï ( κοῦροι , “young boy”) and koré ( κόρη , “young girl”). They are figures human in foot, male or female, offerings made by the city with the divinities. These statues, of size generally human, are a first evolution towards a realism naturalist. The proportions are however not respected with, in particular, a disproportion of the thighs, a particularly fine size, broad shoulders tros… The features of the faces are impassive, without notable expressions and are characterized by large particularly convex almond eyes. The kouroi (male) entirely naked, are koré (female) the vétues of a chiton (tunic). This style is probably inspired by the Egyptian works discovered in Greece thanks to the trade starting from VIIème century before Jesus Christ and is characterized by the hairstyle in braided plaits, the advanced left leg (qualified attitude of " mannerism attique") like by the frontality of these works. The details of the musculature are not very realistic and are often represented only by simple incisions in the stone. We owe their conservation with their crowned character preventing them from being able to leave the temple auquels they were dedicated.

This period comprises the works primarily carved in the Marbre or hones it, the terra cotta, the cast iron technology of the Bronze not allowing yet foundries of big size. These works are sometimes polychrome, and it seems that the use to paint the statues was enough general and durable in Greece.

Traditional period

Period traditional sees to appear sculptures which controls the anatomy and poses, whose authors are identified, in particular because of definition of esthetic guns of proportions which were clean for them. The repertory of the traditional period embraces mythology as well as the heroes, represented in the supposed naturalness of the daily newspaper, with the appearance of the contrapposto or swaying walk of the leg of support. The control of the execution makes sculpture of fifth century BC the top of the traditional esthetics, which will still inspire the Renaissance and the Néo-classicisme of 18th and 19th European centuries.

The traditional period is also the time of monumental sculptures, sometimes out of bronze (aurige of Delphes), sometimes in less used materials, like the sculptures chryséléphantines (ivory and gold plating) of Zeus or Athéna, that Phidias realized for their respective temples, with Olympie (one of the seven wonders of the world) or with Athens.

The second classicism (fourth century BC) is distinguished from the first by a refinement of the guns of proportion, but especially by a lighter interpretation, less stiff, than the previous period, as well as daily subjects. The Hermes carrying Dionysos child allotted to Praxitèle is one of the best examples of this period.

The white Marbre is the most used matter by the sculptors, generally those of Paros or the Pentélique, which gives to the light a soft legibility of the curves and volumes. Red or the Roman green polychrome marble copies destroy this legibility and hardly have that the interest “to make rich”, as Gustave Moreau said it. With regard to bronzes, they were the subject usually of appreciations brought back like enamel eyes, lips and centres out of copper, bronze lashes.

See too

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