First war of opium

The first war of opium was a conflict moved by trade names between the the United Kingdom and the empire Qing in China of 1839 with 1842. He is often regarded as the beginning of the imperial hegemony of the Occident on China and which will take really fine only with the proclamation of the Popular republic of China in 1949.

Foreign trade of China before the wars of opium

The direct foreign trade of China with the European countries begins as of the 16th century, with for first economic partners the Portuguese (1517) which settled with Canton (south-eastern of China), they founded in 1550 the city of Macao. Then come the Spanish to the Filipino (1565), they found there Manila in 1571. These countries are in particular justified by an objective missionary.

The Dutch position in Indonesia, Batavia (current Jakarta), initially installed with Penghu (1603) beside Taiwan, then in Taiwan (1624). The Russian come as neighbors by terrestrial way.

In 1685, under the reign of the emperor Kangxi (1662-1723), an imperial edict authorizes the opening of all the port S Chinese with the foreign boats; the first ship arrives at Canton in 1689. However, this trade remains very limited because subjected to very strict rules: taxes for the foreign traders, obligation to pass by only one intermediary (the merchant of the emperor) which takes taxes with the profit of the State. In 1720, this intermediary is replaced by a collegial organization: the Co-hong.

Under the reign of the emperor Qianlong (1736-1796), the marketing policy is reversed, it is limited in its extent and its intensity. In 1757, an imperial edict states that Co-hong will now fix the prices and the quantities of the exchanged goods, that the maritime borders will be closed (except Canton) and that the foreigners will not be able to settle where they want in Canton (not right to learn the Chinese), the goal being to prevent the direct contacts.

China is an empire rather closed on itself, as much commercially than in the field of the exchange of the ideas and the innovations. This is with a strict protectionism applied by the imperial bureaucracy, ideologically constant at the same time by the elites, concerned not to shake the rites of a very preserving traditional company (even immobilist) and by the population that an extreme mistrust confining with xenophobia maintains remote from abroad.

Nothing is more important there than the repetition of known (which draws its force of conviction in the respect of the ancestors and in the belief than the perfection was reached) without allowing itself to derogate from the rule under penalty of punishments. Consequently, which need, which interest would there be to buy foreign products, therefore unknown, therefore not-included in the tradition, their utility it was proven? Those being essentially " imparfaits" in comparison, and not-in conformity with the rites… (To go further, cf " Motionless Empire or the Shock of Mondes" , Alain Peyrefitte)

Thus the preceding attempts of the foreign sailors to establish counters and to trade with the Empire which is considered in the center of the world, were not always profitable: segregation, brimades, prohibition to communicate with the population, arbitrary imperial, fraudulent taxation, confiscation of goods, etc…

The emperor in several circumstances, does not consider that China can have an interest to trade with the rest of the world. Europe " sinomaniaque" end of the 18th century entiche of Chinese civilization and raffole of its curios. The British import Chinese goods thus more and more (The, Soie, Porcelaine, objects enamelled…).

This irrefutable fact creates a commercial imbalance. But if the foreign traders ask of the assistance to their government, it is before very putting an end to the brimades and especially at the quasi institutionalized segregations of which they are the victims. Two diplomatic missions will be born: the first in 1793 carried out by Lord McCartney to open other ports. It is rejected by Qianlong which refuses (in 1796, Qianlong gives up its throne), the second in 1816, directed by Lord Amherst, does not have more success.

Moreover, China, being self-sufficing, does not want an exchange “goods against goods”, but requires to be paid in silver money only. This is not taste of the British who, contrary to the Spaniards, thanks to their colonies in South America, have little money and much goods in kind, coming mainly from their colonies in the Indies.

To answer the request with the the United Kingdom, the British buy enormous quantities of to the Chinese. The latter, indicator which the trade of the is very lucrative, start to convert their plantations with the detriment of other cultures, mainly that of cotton. At the same time, China cannot live any more in Autarcie and must accept the trade in goods.

Commercial offensive of the foreign powers

The Chinese knew already opium, they did not use it like Drogue or stimulating, but rather like Analgésique. It is as from the 17th century, that they started to use it as drug. The first with their selling some were the Portuguese, opium coming from India.

The British decide to launch out in this trade of most lucrative. The things will intensify with the wire of time and in 1729 entered approximately 200 cases of opium per annum to China. At the end of the 18th century, more 4  000, and in 1838 more 40  000 (sold by the Americans and the British).

The English require to be made pay in ingots money, thus recovering the invaluable metal which they had yielded in the trade of the. The trade balance enters China and the British Empire is reversed quickly and dramatically in favor of the English. The corruption of the Chinese civils servant who control the drug trafficking in China becomes alarming and drug causes devastations in the population. The Emperor then decides to react while being caught some to the British interests.

In 1798, the government of British the Prime Minister William Pitt sends an embassy to Beijing to negotiate an agreement on the commercial exchanges on the basis of this new situation. The emperor, refusing to be made “force the hand” because of opium, prefers to close his country with the tradesmen and the European missionaries.

The answer of the Chinese

The Chinese will try to react with prohibition to smoke opium.

The first measurements of prohibition

The court decided to prohibit opium. In 1729, a first edict, proclaimed by the emperor Yong Zheng (1723-1736), promulgates the prohibition of the traffic of opium, henceforth regarding it as Contrebande.

However the traffic continues, and in 1796, a new edict, proclaimed by the emperor Jia Qing (1796-1821), will confirm the prohibition of the traffic of opium under Capital punishment. This time, of the sanctions against the opium addicts will be also taken.

In 1800, the emperor will proclaim a new edict which will confirm the Prohibition opium and will prohibit its culture on the Chinese ground; the deposits of opium are moved with Huangpu.

In 1809, an administrative measure will be taken to try to block the traffic: the ships which discharge in Huangpu must provide a certificate on which is indicated that there is no opium on board. Corruption reigning among the civils servant does not allow the strict application of these measurements.

Nothing seems to decrease or stop a very lucrative trade: in 1813, a case of Indian opium is sold 2.400 Roupie S (cost price of 240 rupees). In 1821, a new Chinese decree announces that the trade is not possible any more in Huangpu, the market moves with Lingding where it will develop 1821 with 1839. The British Compagnie of the Eastern Indies ( East India Company ) then decides to circumvent prohibition and increases its illegal sales of opium in China; of 100 tons towards 1800 with 2  600 tons in 1838. The trade of the British in China becomes finally surplus, in 1835, there is 2 million opium smokers in China.

The war with the traffic of opium

The Chinese authorities will answer in a more effective way. The emperor Daoguang (1821-1851) request council with ten experts before making a decision. Within the court, there are partisans and adversaries of opium: some want to legalize the traffic and others see the financial problems that will pose in China. A debate will begin during two years. One of these reports/ratios will be presented by the general governor of the provinces of Hubei and the Hunan, Lin Zexu (1775-1850).

This one is rather in favor of the opening of China to the outside world. It is a savage adversary of the traffic and his report/ratio defends the prohibition of opium. He proposes series of measure to limit the traffic and the consumption of opium. Its text is founded on its practice in its two provinces: to confiscate stocks of drug and accessories of the opium addiction.

The emperor names in December 1838 Lin Zexu imperial police chief of the province of the Guangdong (Canton), it has as a responsibility of put a term for the use of opium.

The action of Flax Zexu

In March 1839, Lin Zexu arrives at Canton and draws up the list of all smokings of opium, of the tenants of smokings and the salesmen.

It confiscates all stocks of opium of the city: it gives order to the owners of these stocks to come to give drug and it exchanges some gives them the. They must be also committed in writing giving up making trade with the Chinese (considering all the owners are foreign).

The superintendent British commercial will have to then cooperate with Lin. In April 1839, Lin forwards to the Queen of the United Kingdom, Victoria, a message to say to him that the consumption of opium is prohibited in China and asks him to put an end to some the traffic.

In June 1839, seized drug is destroyed, that is to say 200  000 cases (1 188 ton S). Flax enacts a payment which stipulates that the foreign boats which enter Chinese territorial water will be excavated. The public opinion is favorable to this prohibition.

In the name of the defense of the trade, Lord Melbourne, the Prime Minister for the Queen Victoria, convinces the British Parlement to send a task force to Canton, at the same time starting the first war of opium.

The fever goes up

The the United Kingdom, approximately 300 British business firms ask the British government to intervene with the Chinese authorities. Some want an intervention official of the British so that them their destroyed goods is paid. A press campaign is organized to deplore all these incidents between Britanniques and Chinese.

In China, the things are tightened even more and there are even armed confrontations between British ships and Chinese Jonque S: first has place in September 1839 and the second in November 1839. Lin Zexu prohibits the wearing of Canton to the British ships in December 1839, the emperor decides “to close for always” Canton with the British in January 1840.

This news comes from to the United Kingdom. A debate takes place in April 1840 with the House of Commons between the partisans of military operations for the repair of the wrongs towards their tradesmen and those which want that the United Kingdom gives up selling opium and at the same time gives up a war. The first will have win.

The war

In April 1840, a British armada is setting-up: 16 ship of the lines, 4 drain-holes, 28 ships of transport, 540 guns and 4.000 men. Under the command of the admiral Elliot, they arrive at broad of Canton in June 1840. A British cruiser bombards Canton and occupies the archipelago close to the Chousan (from where is drawn the term from “Diplomatie of the drain-hole”). The British attack Canton but without managing to take it because Lin made plant piles retained by chains in the port, the boats cannot thus accost. There is also a militia which defends the city.

The British conquered HongKong then (a minor outpost) and made a head of bridge of it. The engagements began really in July, when the Unsteady HMS and HMS Hyacinth demolished 29 Chinese ships. The British captured the fort which kept the mouth of the Rivière of the Pearls - the sea route between HongKong and Guangzhou.

The Chinese court takes fear, Lin Zexu fall in disgrace (condemned to the exile) and they name in its place an aristocrat, Qishan.

Negotiations will take place with Canton: Qishan makes demolish the fortifications of Flax, dissolve the militia in November 1840 and reduce the number of soldiers.

Three British claims:

  • the revival of the trade with the United Kingdom
  • the refunding of stocks of destroyed opiums
  • the making of HongKong (in the past Victoria Islands) in their bosom.

Qishan refuses. The British try to make it fold while attacking and seizing some works of fortification. Qishan takes fear and accepts the claims.

The Chinese court thinks that the acceptance of Qishan relates to only the revival of the trade. By learning that goes much further, the emperor decides to relieve Qishan (carried out in February 1841) and declares the war with the British on January 29th, 1841. The emperor replaces Qishan by Yishan.

In 1841 the British forces occupied the area around Guangzhou, then they took the city close to Ningpo (nowadays Ningbo) and the military station of Chinhai.

Military operations proceed in the province of Canton, the British are made main quickly from the strategic places. Yishan will spend several weeks to arrive at Canton, it will launch an attack against the British but this one is pushed back, the Chinese are folded up inside Canton. Yishan will require the Armistice and a convocation of armistice (convention on the repurchase of Canton) will be signed on May 27th, 1841. This convocation urges the Chinese to repurchase Canton 6 million dollars to the British (of which a million the very same day). But it rests on a double misunderstanding used by the British diplomats: the Chinese regard this action as a commercial loan and the British did not give up the compensation for stocks of opium and also HongKong.

Chinese capitulation

The British want to still make fear with the Chinese in order to obtain more with a new negotiation. In August 1842, a British squadron went up the Yangzi Jiang until Nankin, obliging the government of the emperor CAT-kouang to capitulate and sign the Traité of Nankin on August 29th, 1842. This Treaty, gives the British, the free trade of opium, the end of the obligation to negotiate only with Co Hong and especially the concession of the island of HongKong who will be taken again thereafter.

The British forces were directed by the general Anthony Blaxland Stransham.

The facility with which the British forces had obtained the victory affected the prestige of the Quing dynasty seriously. That contributed certainly to the Rébellion Taiping (1850 - 1862).

Treaties

August 29th, 1842, the representatives of the court will sign on board a British drain-hole the famous Traité of Nankin. This treaty will be supplemented later by two other treaties concluded on July 28th, 1843 and on October 8th, 1843 (Traité of Humen). Essence goes to the treaty of Nankin. But these 3 treaties recognize with the British of the rights:
  • 1st clause: the transfer of HongKong which will become a military and economic place
  • 2nd clause: 5 ports are open : Xiamen, Canton, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai. The British obtain also the right to settle in these ports and to live there with their family (for the merchants). The treaty of Humen also authorized the construction of buildings in these ports.
  • 3rd clause: war indemnities (fresh + opium): Yuan, is 1/3 of the receipts of the imperial government. 4 year old bill book.
  • 4th clause: customs : the British tradesmen are fixed with the payment of right on the Importation S and Exportation S, the amount from now on is fixed by the Chinese and the British.
  • 5th clause: right of the consular jurisdiction : in the event of litigation between an Chinese and a British, British jurisdiction, bases British laws.
  • 6th clause: the most favoured nation : if China signs a treaty with another power, the privilege granted to the nation in question will be in fact granted to the United Kingdom.

Other nations (the United States of America, France) ask for the same privileges as those granted to the United Kingdom.

  • the United States: in 1842, the same commercial laws and legal assert. In 1844, they obtain them by the treaty of Wangxia (village close to Macao)
  • France: Before the war of opium, French was badly placed commercially then they obtain the same rights in October 1844 by the treaty of Whanpoa. They obtain moreover the right to build church S and Cimetière S.A few days afterwards, they obtain the right of évangéliser.

Economic consequences and social of the 1st war of opium

After the treaties of Nankin, the Chinese economy opens with the foreign powers and vice versa. China exports more than 100 million pounds sterling of the, twice as much as before. Of 12  000, the Chinese export from now on 20  000 silk balls in 1840, by the means of the British. The foreign trade get busy to reinforce their position and settle especially with Shanghai (British concession in 1841, American concession in 1845, then international concession). Shanghai becomes a French concession in 1849 (legal enclave with resemblance to the French districts). The trade of opium continues to develop. It legal but is still not tolerated: 40  000 cases in 1838,50  000 in 1850,80  000 in 1863 (double in 25 years).

Financial consequences

Before 1821, the case is sold between 1.000 and 2.000 Mexican dollars maximum. After 1838, between 700 and 1.000 Mexican dollars. The currency was the liang (translated by French taël). The liang corresponds to a variable money weight. (approximately 37 G) and 1 liang = 1.000 sapèque (out of copper). The Chinese pay in liang. The silver money rarefies in China, the value increases with the detriment of the copper currency. Inflation goes up:
  • Before 1820,1 liang = 1.000 sapèques
  • In 1845,1 liang = 2.200 sapèques.
This rise is reflected on the Chinese who have only the sapèques ones, the taxes double.

Social consequences

In the countryside, the peasants are involved in debt more and more near the landowners. The peasants beg, are made gangsters, joined secret societies.

Downtown: the fate of the craftsmen is hardly more enviable. The foreign products (cotton fabrics and wire) can flow on the Chinese market. Unemployment for some, others die of hunger. Between 1841 and 1849, one counts 100 popular risings approximately. The Revolt of Taiping for example. This popular anger flows against the foreigners (movements of hostility) as in Canton or Fuzhou.

The population is also turned over against the court. The revolt will be subdued. In 1851, the emperor Xian Feng reaches the throne, the negotiators of the treaties fall in disgrace and the Chinese want to take again what they agree to give under disgrace.

See too

Zh-yue: 第一次鴉片戰爭

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