Cartography of the biological corridors

The cartography of the biological corridors attempts to index, treat on a hierarchical basis and chart the biological corridors (last, existing, or potential), i.e. the places or networks of places meeting the circulation terms of one or more species in the landscape, and if necessary under the ground and in the aquatic environments (including sailors).

These cartographies are more or less precise and complex, or on the contrary voluntarily synthetic and simplifying. They rest on charts of naturatlity , and ecological Fragmentation.

The overexploitation of certain mediums, agriculture, certain zones of military after-effects or industrial pollution, and human constructions and infrastructures in general constitute a growing number of ecological barriers, being opposed to displacements of many alive species and the diffusion or the normal mixture their genes. To compensate for the ecological impacts of fragmentation écopaysagère by these infrastructures, and for correctly conceiving and following the biological corridors necessary to the maintenance of the biodiversity, it is necessary to be able to chart them and if possible to treat on a hierarchical basis them.

Cartographier an ecological grid is a complex work, which poses many unsolved problems. Thus, as example;

an infrastructure which is a barrier for a species can be a corridor or a corridor of substitution for other species (a channel is a barrier for wild boars or the roe-deers which drown there, but it is a biological Corridor for eels.
Of many species has particular needs still unknown or badly included/understood. There is, were there corridors for the ground worms.
the majority of the species have species symbions or species of which they depend or who depend on them. How to take into account the needs for displacement of guilds, or groups of species.
That are the “corridors” allowing the displacement of the populations of trees a step of time quite different from ours, for example to adapt to the climatic modifications?
Nombre of the elements which constitute a corridor is discrete, even invisible (ex “thermo-hygrometrical Continuum” for the species requiring an air very dry, or very wet, continuums of acid media, or Oligotrophe S).

the first cartography of biological networks of corridors are recent and of design varied. Their scales go from that of a Biome or a continent, even of several continents (corridors Pan-American, paneuropéen, Parléarctique north-Westerner or Eurasiatiques for example) to a precision about the meter. By definition, their scales of relevance should be biogeographic, but because they are led or financed by communities, these charts are too often superimposed or limited to the zones of competences of territorial collectivities. Sometimes one is interested in a species (ex: the tortoise lute, such butterfly or bat.), sometimes with a broad group of species (ex: migratory birds) or with the totality of the species likely to move in a given biogeographic zone, which they are migrating or sedentary. Certain charts theoretical, are built on the basis of modeling, are fixed by some checks of ground. Others on the contrary are based primarily on observations of ground. technique and average data processing, as biological knowledge (genetic in particular) evolve/move constantly and quickly. For these reasons, the modes of representation are numerous. The ecology of the landscape being a recent discipline, the modes of cartography are not yet standardized and are often experimental.

To chart what?

It is generally a question of charting:

a state of L integrity ecological (or écopaysagère) for a zone considered, and its peripheral zone, starting from indices of permeability or ecological connectivity.
the cartographer thus sticks also to represent the ecological, natural or artificial Fragmentation, while testing, with the abundant data by the ecologists, to treat on a hierarchical basis the importance of the artificial barriers which are opposed to natural biological flows.
One or more chart (S) of synthesis presenting the networks écologiques' (existing, potential and/or to restore).
the representation is generally space, but it can usefully integrate a temporal dimension. It is generally in 2xD (two dimensions) but can integrate the third dimension, for example in the case of the underwater corridors, or corridors of avian migration, or of the species of canopée, or species forced by limits of altitude (crossing of collars), or using the valleys as corridor of migration. The charts mappées (projected) on a digital model of ground (making visible the relief, possibly exacerbated) are very teaching. Progress of data processing reduced by them the cost and the time computing.
old cores of biodiversity (retrospective Écologie),
the projected ecological infrastructures (what one wants to restore)
a future or hoped situation, possibly with different scenarii, or objective in the various temporal term.

To chart why?

These charts are particularly useful in all the operations requiring inventories of fixtures of the Environment, in particular for the Impact studies so that they produce conservative measures and/or compensatory really effective and relevant. In France, as example, these charts will allow the update of the local environmental profiles, of ZNIEFF/2nde generation, the setting in oeuve of the ecological network paneuropéen, the application of the Accord on the conservation of the migrating water birds of Africa-Eurasia (AEWA) and for the operations of town and country planning and a more ecological management, restauratoire and thus differentiated elements of the landscape forest, rural and urban, but also for agricultures bearable, the leisures related to the environment, a better integration of the biodiversity in the HQE (cf 15th target HQE being studied: Capacity of the frame to refund its ecological debt), etc

Preconditions to the cartography

The theory and the experiment show that it is ideally necessary beforehand to have several types of data (local and total and on relevant scales of the landscape, spatiotemporelles scales which vary according to the species or ecosystems considered);

. .en matière de ecological, acuelle and last richness (and of the genetic scale on the scales of the biomes and the biosphere, in particular for the migrating species) In France one is based especially on the databases and atlases faunistic, fungic and floristic, ZNIEFF and the perimeters proposed in Brussels within the framework of Natura 2000 or for the Directive birds… for the terrestrial environments. (One misses data for the mediums underwater, underground, the micro-organisms and on genetic diversity)
. as regards functional Integrity écopaysagère
. .en matière de " tendances" (natural state of development, or influence or constraint anthropic).
. .et thus as regards infrastructure artificial and obstacles with the displacement and normal functioning of the species or ecosystems

For the approaches suprapaysagères and the study from what results from this, it is advisable to hold account owing to the fact that certain projections cartographic (Planisphère) deform reality or give the impression that zones in close realities are distant. The planisphere represented by the Projection of Fuller highlights better the proximities between emerged grounds, geographical proximity which can, in the absence of factors “opposing” to explain certain circulations of genes, the propagules, invasive species or the certain pathogenic ones. The same it is useful to consider not only the mountainous relief and certain climatic barriers, but also the marine reliefs and current, as well as the volume of water or certain habitats (forest, for example) which are generally regarded as surfaces or ( “spots” ). Lastly, certain migratory axes, related to a memory " génétique" at many species can have an origin so old that she would explain herself more by the position of the continents there is years million, why by strict adaptive advantages today. In the same way is necessary it to take account of the needs for certain species (airstreams, current marine, Salinité, etc, or of complex relations of interdependence (a predator or a parasite can “migrate” with its preys)… as many factors which do not appear spontaneously with the reading of not specialized charts.

Conditions of success

Work must be sufficiently fine and updated. This is made difficult by the cost and the time of acquisition of the relevant data, the gaps of knowledge and the evolution of this knowledge). Moreover, this work is often constrained by the lack of means and ecological or contextual urgencies (ex: to produce a compensatory measure and/or restauratoire with an additional fragmentation by a road, a regrouping, a ZAC or another installation, to finish a study within deadlines which are not those of the natural cycles.). The approach SIG allows a regular update of the data, and sometimes of the comparisons of evolution in time.

Multidisciplinarity, fine knowledge and/or pragmatism?

Multidisciplinarity, a systemic approach and the retreat of a collective reflection make it possible to compensate for certain gaps in knowledge and the fact that each one tends to " favoriser" or surpondérer what he knows and estimates more important, according to its speciality. The ecological screen is a place of integration and hierarchisation for many disciplines. The synthesis by a good general practitioner from the points of view of specialists is not always possible. Choices are then to make. Prospective scenarii are often possible, although delicate. Very good ecologists and sometimes the actors knowing well the ground have knowledge, know-how and intuitions which deserve to be taken into account (for example for the analysis of air or satellite images. and/or urged on by a directed maintenance.).
Des exploratory studies of the climate encouraged the Australia to decide the creation of a climatic Corridor so that the organizations living can better migrate and react vis-a-vis climate warming.

Main objective: to re-mesh the landscape

To restore a functional network of biological corridors, to circumvent the ecological obstacles and barriers it is necessary to identify and treat on a hierarchical basis:

" sources" ecological (Habitats sources of propagules, zone-cores, hearts of habitats), which can naturally locally vary (ex in time and space: forest dynamics starting from windfallen woods and networks of clearings, dynamic of alluvial deposit of the wetlands and the belts of vegetation, etc)
brakes, barriers, bolts or necks of curiously,
* material (ex: stopping on river or highway through a forest) or
* immaterial (too dry ex odors, microclimates, disturbance, luminous Pollution, etc which for certain species - because they split up the ecosystems abnormally - limit or prohibit the displacement normal and necessary of fauna and the flora, genes within the species and their habitats. particularly for the migrating ones.

It is useful to identify the critical sizes of certain habitats and the degree of Percolation possible or plausible of the species in the existing éco-landscape screen. With this intention, the analysis of satellite and/or air images, and approaches it SIG offer perceptions which work on the ground allows with difficulty him only. The thermo-hygrometrical Continuums, invisible in our eyes can also be very important for many species very sensitive to these parameters. They are too seldom taken into account.

One will be able to then cross between them (at least) the data quoted in this article to establish a cartography treating on a hierarchical basis the resources écopaysagères and illuminant or illustrating the stakes with respect to ecological fragmentation. Caution! None the data quoted below only makes it possible it to chart a relevant ecological network.

It seems necessary to work out for the public, the decision makers and the recipients a chart of the guiding ideas, charts having the network ideal (with if necessary several alternatives) answering the ecological urgencies and based on what exists, but also the potential of ground. Each one suspects that the installation of the real network will encounter many material difficulties, sociocultural to see sociopsychologic, also is necessary it to hold human, technical and financial means adapted to sensitizing and participation of all.

This is why we advise to regularly update a chart of existing and opportunities… in a partnership approach with the communities, the SAFER, the EPF when there exists, the general advices (cf TDENS), the academy of the sites, the littoral, botany, associations of protection of nature, the large developers, the owners, the developers, etc). Many actors suggest maintaining a day before (" type; Permanent observatory of the biodiversity and the networks écopaysagers") and to maintain a historical vision (files + retrospective ecology) and long-term futurology (the landscape, the trees evolve/move at the rate/rhythm of the centuries and millenia), as well as a certain flexibility to avoid unforeseen (climatic, ecological crises, accidents, wars, etc). The actors are numerous to appreciate or request the provision by Internet of these data, knowing however that some legal problems arise as for the royalties, of protection of certain data and protection of threatened species (by ex sought by collectors)

Lawful or administrative contexts

European context

The Stratégie paneuropéenne for the protection of biological diversity and landscape (STRA-REP) urges the Member States to contribute to the implementation of an ecological network paneuropéen Side-European Ecological Network (or PEEN). The States can for that be pressed on a European secretariat, and a guide ( Guidelines for the development off the PEEN ). The topic of the biological Corridors had been identified like a priority of work over the period 1999-2000. This strategy was ratified by France in 1996. A first stage was to carry to knowledge, and thus “to put in chart”, the elements of landscapes which are corridors, the nodes of the ecological grid, the buffer zones and any element useful to this type of approach, i.e. which positively can or negatively to contribute to protect, to restore the éco-landscape integrity, the natural éco-permeability of the landscape necessary to the operation of the Biodiversity. Much country took a considerable delay in the application of this strategy.

The directives Habitat and Natura 2000 bring elements for the cores which constitute the “nodes” of the ecological network. See also the European Charter of the landscape. Lawful context in Belgium:

Lawful context in Canada:

Lawful context in Luxembourg:

Lawful context in Switzerland:

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Lawful context in France:

Within the framework of SRADDT proposed by the Law LOADT, the strategy which must produce a national ecological network started to be declined in the years 2000, with for example a green and blue Trame in the Nord/Pas-de-Calais, in Alsace Area, in the Department of Isere, or via some Agenda 21 regional or various local projects (on scale of the agglos or communities of communes in particular).
Les country and the agglomerations (via the SCOT and PADD) contribute to the installation of the national ecological network, with the Regional natural parks if necessary. These documents must take into account the SRADT and be in conformity with the possible territorial one of installation|territorial directives of installation. With these scales the first charts generally are very simplified (Dunkirk Example (see page 67), but the “ cores ” of the network generally already precisely are charted and identified.

Elements to be charted

Elements whose cartography is possible and useful but that it will always be advisable to cross between them.

Landscape and/or space-time heterogeneity

With certain scales; the charts made starting from interpretation of satellite or air images by special software underline very strongly certain characteristics of the Occupation of the ground and the vegetation favorable or not to the biodiversity. The satellite data or of occupation of the ground with large scales cannot provide certain essential local information, in particular as regards ecological fragmentation by infrastructures (highways, roads, TGV, lines HT, etc) or Biocide S, or thermal Pollution but they helps to highlight great infrastructures the ecological at global scales and regional. They are particularly useful for the establishment of regional strategies and suprarégionales on which appuieronappuyer of the more local strategies which effective so relevant and will be coordinated With the local scales, these charts must be declined via a refined analysis and more important checks of grounds.

A work limited to the administrative borders of the zone studied risk to make lose essential information, as regards biological flows and nutrients in particular…

Attention, for the same habitat, according to the scale of the photographic document used, a habitat or a landscape, the software of analysis or the eye will describe a homogeneous or heterogeneous medium (ex: 10 years ago, on the satellite images, the Forêt S appeared as homogeneous as corn fields, whereas on a good photograph air or satellite, in particular taken in autumn, their real heterogeneity appears much better, but only for canopée, which does not translate all the richnesses on the ground. (Certain recent software deducts and identifies the trees with less than 20% of errors). The Infrarouge can sometimes provide important data.

With certain scales certain essential mediums (small wetlands, ponds, ripisylves, etc) do not appear simply. Atlases of these mediums, charts of forest typologies complementary are necessary. (In an ecological system, as in the human organism, the size of an element of the system does not say anything of its major functional importance)

A cartography (and quality analyzes) some écotone S, to multiple scales (space and temporal) brings very interesting information if realized on relevant scales (approach “coarse grain” with “fine grains”)

Data faunistic, floristic, ecological traditional

As far as possible, these data are quatitatives and qualitative. But the atlases fauna, flora, fonge (terrestrial and marine, including the cavernicolous species), and other chart of phytodiversié, etc cannot be exhaustive. One thus uses generally simplifying models (ex: equation of the Arrhenius), balanced or specified by data resulting from monitoring of species-key or “keystone” or “sunshade”, or bioindicatrices, although this approach is periodically blamed at the profit of a more global solution and precaution (It is difficult to know with certainty which are the species-key before they disappeared. but it is then too late.)
Les data must be adapted on scales considered, with for example of the charts of habitats (ZNIEFF, ZICO, Natura 2000, Corine LandCover, etc which are bases, but must be updated and supplemented because they precisely or too little did not take into account the concept of " network écologique" , and because the evolution even of the flora, fauna or fonge is a relevant and qualitative ecological data).
On too often forgets, the species of the ground, the night Environnement, cavernicoles and the corridors and habitats underwater and of fresh water and brackish, possibly supplemented data on thermo-hygrometrical continuities.
Certains artificial habitats deserves to be taken into account, because being able to have a great importance (positive or negative) for many species (from of which hibernating there profiting for example particular microclimates).
+ Charts of species-key? (absence presence and/or presence/absence of existing and/or potential habitats);
+ charts of species recently disappeared or supposed disappeared (Of the data are often available since 1950 (and more for the birds and mammals) for fauna and since 1800 for the flora). It is advisable to note the presence in the adjacent areas of species disappeared on the territory from work, but which could return naturally there so from the ecological continuums were restored, at least able functionally to replace those which existed before even if they are not superimposed on it exactly.

Charts of indices

(ex starting from species or of plants bioindicatrices such as the lichens, even with incomplete data). In this category can also appear of the very instructive and teaching charts of " Naturalité" , total, or by great type of mediums (Ex; forests, wetlands, slopes limestones, meadows, etc) which can include the artificial mediums (urban Green areas, industrial waste lands, mining riders etc). These charts are in particular to cross with the charts of potentiality to reveal the stakes and priorities as regards restoration of éco-landscape continuities.

Favorable charts of factors

. favorable to certain threatened and/or functionally essential groups (ex: invertebrates saproxylophages, or worms of ground, bees, bald person mouse, etc) Ex: Wetlands, protected dunes, chart SIG of the zones of bocagées permanent meadows, slopes limestones, moors and/or forests distant of more than 100 m of the main roads, ways TGV, the channels and the cultivated fields.

Chart of the zones preserved or moved away from… by ex: zones preserved or moved away of more than 200 m of a zone making the object of pulverization of pesticides, chart of the zones not or little touched by luminous pollution, the noise, certain industrial repercussions, the ozone peaks caused by the urban photochemical pollution whose maximum ones are often measured to 10 or 15 km of the city itself, and who have significant impacts on the vegetation and can one suppose on part of fauna…

The green Screen or weaves ecological infrastructures existing and potential or “envisaged” (in nuances of green, hatched for the projects, and full color for what exists)

Does the subset WEAVE BLUE (in nuance of blue => variations, quantities, water qualities soft, brackish, salted, (underground?) and surface, with when they is possible data (real or modelled) on the thermo-hygrometrical variations. Cf Atlas of the wetlands (in progress, but which will index only the zones of more than 1 ha, often very exploited and polluted (lead, starters weeding sometimes) by hunting and fishing and less rich in Amphibians and rare plants. Not to forget the importance of the network of the sources, small wetlands, ditches and ponds which was very strongly degraded these last years) Cf " Atlas of the zones inondables" (of which chart of the often declared zones disaster victims)

Ecological barriers

(ex: in nuances of red, orange, black, brown, according to their importance) They are the unsuitable to the life or unfavourable zones with circulation and/or the reproduction or the life of the species or of groups or guilds of species. These charts can in particular be drawn on copies (virtual or paper) which apply to the charts of the existing network écopayager, potential or to restore. These charts can relate to a species (ex: salmon), a category of species (ex: fish or migrating organizations of the rivers) or the species characteristic of a habitat or a medium which interests the remaillor of the territory (ex: forest species, digger animals, the invertebrates saproxylophages, migratory birds, etc). Charts in " false relief 3D (or in virtual 3D) " presenting the barriers like faults all the more broad and deep that they are splitting up can help with the comprehension of the stakes for the public and the originators and managers of infrastructures. In the same way the 3xD can better do to apprehend the related aspects with the exposure (slope southern or western by ex, often respectively hotter and wetter), and by exacerbating the relief, one highlights very well the problems of erosion of the ground, especially if this data is crossed, cartographiquement, with the chart of the vulnerability to erosion.

With the local scales, a work of analysis/interpretation of air photographs seems impossible to circumvent. Could tools for machine analysis be developed (existing for the soldiers? or certain weather uses, sailors, agricultural, of geological prospection, etc). The photographs (plane, satellite) of night allowing to describe the integrity of the night environment (zones of less luminous pollution), knowing that a biological corridor should always be also a “corridor of black”, and that the corridors are especially used of night by the majority of the species. They seem expensive and difficult to produce, and in France the overflight of night of the urbanized areas where luminous pollution is most important, is prohibited. A mathematical model (Thot) developed by Michel Bonavitacola of Toulouse makes it possible to draw up reliable enough approximate charts for a general work, for example with regional scales, but to refine imperatively by a work of ground for the positioning or the study of the corridors. (This topic is regularly approached by National association for the protection of the night sky: ANPCN. It held there a meeting - without continuations - with the Ministry (F) of the environment, several international symphosiums the AFE announced to set up an work group on luminous pollution, but it to our knowledge did not meet) " barrières" that it is imperative to chart:

Infrastructures (Roads, highways, railways, TGV, channels, rivers… (attention; sometimes corridors (berms, banks), sometimes factor of fragmentation for other species on whole or part of their linear), stoppings, lines HT, Antennas or cables on the corridors of migration, luminous pollution linear or specific, etc). With a particular mention for the most opaque infrastructures with animal and vegetable displacements (ex; highways and TGV with double fence) or high-risk of road-kill (mortality animal by collision with vehicles). It is useful to produce charts of the zones far away from the infrastructures

Rem: When a spindle of corridors is drawn, it is interesting to observe the drawing of the elements écopaysagers intercepted by this spindle. : With which “mathematical” approach or SIG? (cf classes of properties, or risks, or splitting up infrastructures, etc).

Conversely, the cartography must be able to help so that any beam of road project can be drawn with the interception of the corridors existing, to create or potentials.

Hot (" black") spots: Certain bottlenecks, “ecological well” or ecological barriers (natural or artificial) must be charted (Ex: tight fences on corridor of migration, insuperable stoppings for watery fauna, etc). This chart will make it possible to treat on a hierarchical basis and place the corridors of skirting and compensation. When several factors of threats or negative influence cross, the chart must highlight it (surponderation):

Ex : Close to Arras a1 highway crosses the Scarpe river, but it is also at this place crossed by a line HT positioned on a corridor of migration of the birds (the valley of the scarpe)
A1 and its double fence is a major barrier, which splits up the area into 2, but one moreover joined in A1 the TGV Paris-Lille, also equipped with a double fence, and which practically was not the subject of measurements of safeguarding of the Ecoduc type, nor of compensatory measures. The context of intensive agriculture does not support the circulation and the life of the wildlife, even if a management and an artificial recharge allow the survival of some species game (agrainage)

Zones urbanized (concept to moderate or relativize according to the context (naturality, surface and degree of connectivity of the green areas.) and according to the impact more or less splitting up and polluting urbanization, according to the wealth of habitats semi-natural and/or of substitution (of which industrial waste lands, ZAC HQE, etc See examples of Hamburg, Stuttgart or Berlin).

- Certain cities or urban areas, ZAC prove much richer in biodiversity than the intensive crop year, and the networks of gardens, public gardens, green areas school, industrial, forsaken infrastructures, etc can with an architecture HQE, an ecological management and thus differentiated to have, at least temporarily, a function of substitution for a true network of natural infrastructures and natural habitats even if that would remain insufficient.

Zones artificialized (to envisage a specific layer SIG for the cultivated fields being the subject of spreadings of pesticides, which are to be regarded as very “artificialized” (sometimes biological quasi-deserts), and conversely to envisage a layer SIG for the very extensive organic farming or and the permanent meadows, scrap-metal. less artificial and especially much more favourable with the biodiversity)
zones of forests, ripisylves and intensive sylviculture (ex: monospecific cultivated forest and équienne managed by cycles of great close-cropped cuts).

It seems useful and necessary to chart the degree of naturality (or of artificialisation) and of fragmentation of the main forests, as well as the relative proximity of the solid masses between them (of other countries did it). For historical reasons, in France these data are collected by the ONF, the CRPF and the IFN, but to date without pooling.

Charts of the zones of animal experiments of GMO/, trees and other plants, mushrooms, micro-organisms (cf risks with short, average and long run of genetic pollution, ecological impacts, accumulation of LT in the rhizosphère, appearance of super - bad grasses. in particular and at least for the experimentation in the open air).
Pollution (whole or part of the year), of stock and flow, including thermal pollution in water, luminous pollution, and invisible and discrete pollution such as pollution of the atmosphere by the biocides (of which pesticides) or ozone, when the data are available.

Atlas or Database sites, ols and/or sediments (of which BASIAS, BASOL.) to put in prospect with the charts for pédo-landscapes, vulnerability and/or the pédo-geochemical regional inventory (INRA/ISA).
Shooting-trap and zones of intensive hunting is to be located and in the short and long term file for the real and potential problems, immediate and differed from lead poisoning (ex: 400 kg of shot of bay plomb/ha of Canche according to CNRS) (Recall: the shot of hunting contains also approximately 8% of antimony and of arsenic) and the starters consisted a long time of mercury fulminate, as many very toxic and nonbiodegradable products.
Idem for the zones with toxic after-effects of war (related to the ammunition dumps (of which immersed ammunition polluted, grounds, underwater deposits of waste, traditional or chemical weapons).

Recall: The wetlands and ponds, careers, lakes also could be concerned by the immersions or hiding of not exploded weapons or waste various - cf recent Swiss study which showed that approximately 50% of the lakes received toxic waste or out-of-date ammunition, in significant amount. There is redécouvert 30.000 T of shells of which 12.000t chemical (Yperite, chloropicrin) close to the Port of Zeebrugge. What is it in France and in the United Kingdom?

Position risks major
It would be appropriate - ideally - that the biological corridors avoid the zones with position risk or where the industrial pollution is proven and serious, but it is that for strategic economic reasons, these zones are very often installed on the edges of river, near the estuaries or on the littorals which were, are and will be the natural corridors impossible to circumvent (ex Metaleurop and main part of the classified installations Sévéso, of which the power station of Gravelines.)

In the sectors almost completely covered by these zones or zones of intensive agriculture (either approximately 80% area NPDC). It is thus necessary pragmatically to limit and " to manage the risque". Charts of risks and danger can help there.

Ex: To chart according to the marine currents the zones at the risk of oil slick or stranding of chemicals can also make it possible to better react in the event of accident. (ex effaroucheurs to prevent that the birds expose themselves to the layers of oil, installation accelerated of health care centres, etc)

Certains elements temporarily " négatifs" can be located and charted like future interesting zones after depollution, reconversion or rehabilitation (ex careers, polluted waste lands, network of the mining riders, discharges, basins plugs, poplar plantations, etc in particular in the very urbanized and industrialized areas where these sites are often the last available, offering alternatives acceptable for a great number of species, after rehabilitation). When the future vocation cannot be exclusively of green screen or biological corridor, of installations HQE will allow to reduce the negative impacts of their refitting.
It is also appropriate to evaluate a posteriori the effectiveness of the écoducs (passage fauna/flora) already carried out and to improve it the cases falling due.
When the data are absent, of the modelings fixed and checked by some studies grounds is useful.

the air photographs of regular floods to centennial are to be preserved and study: the emerged zones are zones of refuges temporary “arches of Noah” making it possible many animals not to die drowned. that it would be necessary in measurements of possible including in the ecological networks and preserving pollution when they are not anthropisées too much.
In the same way the air photographs of floods or covered landscape of snowy coat highlight sometimes well the networks of trees and of the woodlands.

the air photographs are sources very rich in information, but requiring a sometimes long work of interpretation, the machine analysis available for the communities not being yet enough reliable to produce satisfactory charts.

One can also analyze them with the actors of ground who still enrich information.
the photographers can be formed to be in capacity to better locate the interesting landscape infrastructures or the factors of fragmentation.
the comparison of images taken at the same dates under the same conditions over several years or decades make it possible to have an good idea of the tendencies (including night for luminous pollution). and to highlight phenomena (ex: of retreat of the scrap-metal or pasture) that the inhabitants and town councilors do not notice to them-even because of slow and discrete evolution of the landscape.
One will be pressed usefully on the documents being interested in close topics, by ex the Atlas of the landscapes in France, the BAP (Biodiversity Action Plan) for the KCC in the United Kingdom, etc
the photographic observatories (photographs, films) of the landscape when they exist make it possible to follow the evolution of mediums considered to be representative, rare or threatened. An observatory of the biodiversity was several times proposed since 1992 in several countries. Cerains elements are set up, of which a coordination UNO, but of the more important means are to be found.

Particular case of the forests.

As example, in France, the “National Forestry Commission” had had for several centuries implemented the concept of “Diagrid of the forests” (since Colbert?), consigning document, by solid mass and piece all the operations of forestry installation, hunting, etc These documents are an invaluable memory of the forest, which can today be prolonged by forest environmental profiles (proposal of Diren NPDC), with a “ Sommier of the diagrids ” which could be accessible via Internet, by integrating the concepts charted of corridors inter-solid masses, but also of corridors intraforestiers, (evolutionary in time and space) within the framework of the green Trame national redemandée with force by the Grenelle of the Environment in 2007.

The National office of the Forests produced in 1992 a first national ecological assessment in 1992, updated in 2002: the first assessment was centered on the field of the forest inventory sensu stricto more than on the functions of protection of the biodiversity and the social functions of the public forest, but there offered useful data for a national cartography, just as the data of the IFN, at least for the Metropolitan France, the extreme richness of the French tropical forests remaining under-explored. The ONF integrates in the years a 2000 approach ISO 14001 and PEFC what imposes a regional inventory of fixtures théroriquement charted and new indicators of durable management useful for the cartography of the corridors. A layer SIG “ Deadwood ” could meet the urgent need save the invertebrates Saproxylophage S and species dependant on the deadwood (Saproxylique S) and their predatory or Symbiote S. Concerning the deadwood, there exists a program “Xylobios” in Belgium, which has some Canadian equivalents (Forêt models Fundy), in Switzerland and Northern Europe… The particular case of the Forests of war and Red zones (planted on sites destroyed by the war of 14-18, on grounds with 95% reassigned in the 5 years, after cleaning for agriculture, or domanialized for the forest), of type Verdun or Vimy in France, always potentially polluted (Lead, mercury, Arsenic, after-effects of chemical shells. with the Polémosylvofacies which start to be studied, but forgotten bus not-taken counts some in the regional reference frames geopedochimic existing, nor in the databases type Basias or Basol.

Complementary elements

Not to omit to study, at least for the most significant zones or of the particular case:

Images infra-red,
Images of air night or satellite for identifying the great zones of luminous Pollution. Alas these images are seldom available to fine scale. One bases oneself then on modelings which were shown rather reliable, by comparison with the real data (see in particular the world Atlas of the luminous pollution of Cinzano).

Important recall: the biological corridors are especially borrowed the night, and in the black imperatively for the lucifugous species which are numerous. It seems that one very strongly underestimated the importance of the impacts of luminous pollution for fauna. He is studied little for the flora, but by precaution it is necessary to limit the direct lighting of the trees. The biological corridors must as much as possible being in the black…

Air sights early of end of winter or beginning of spring for the moderate zones (before foliation to see the ponds and the vegetation on the ground), and in summer or autumn to measure the importance and/or the diversity of the vegetation).

Noise

To be functional, certain biological corridors must be also corridors of silence, in particular the night when they are attended the most. The sound Pollution is an ecological factor of disturbance not to be underestimated, although it seems not to obstruct certain species. It is also an indication of other factors of fragmentation (in particular impacts of the traffic of vehicles, airports, zones of activity, road racing sets, kart, quadd, motocross, model making, etc). Ex: The noise of the highways affects the songbirds significantly. The powerful sounds (sonars submarines) can start the formation of nitrogen bubble in the body and the blood of the nitrogen whales supersaturated, and this phenomenon could take part in the death abnormal of Cetacea (hemorrhages, lesions of fabrics) in the military zones of exercises in particular. Even underwater sounds with modest intensity can induce these bubbles. Zones of strait (standard Strait of the Pas-de-Calais) can reinforce the exposure of the Cetacea showed other studies. The EU asked the States member and to NATO to reduce the level of underwater sound pollution, by the sonars with high intensity notamment.
Un Internet site is devoted to the ecology of the noise and certain ecological impacts of the Bruit, the Vibration S, Infrason S or Ultrason S, etc

The charts of noise exposure are obligatory in Europe for the great communities (cf Directive 2002/49/CE imposing with the Member State to transmit them before December 31st, 2007, but many communities are late). If they are extended to the not inhabited zones, they will be also useful for the aspects aménitaires of the green screens and the ecological network paneuropéen (the number of households subjected to the excessive noise in the residences in day fell since 10 years (of 54% to RU), thanks to progress of the insulation and with the roadways and cars quieter. but the night noise increases significantly at the dawn and at the end of the evening (more traffic, collects waste, urban cleaning, etc). It exceeds recommendation WHO for the 2/3 of the British showed Chris Skinner. The directives of WHO are based on a limit which should make it possible to sleep with opened windows, need which is likely to become more frequent with the announced heat waves.

Climatic risks violent one

These risks, briefs in time but violent one can have effects lasting of the decades on the biodiversity: for example, after the dryness of 1976, the trees suffered from diseases and stresses increased during at least 10 years. The storms mark the ecosystems durably. It is thus useful to chart the affected areas by the great hydrous stresses or the strong storms, exceptional marine invasions etc

Geology , Geomorphology , Pedology…

These 3 factors have a determining importance for the structure and the nature of the vegetation, for the offer out of masks and shelters for fauna, and thus for the potential of a site as a biological corridor , core or zone-plug of a ecological Réseau.
La Nord/Pas-de-Calais Area area (with the ISA, INRA) is the first to be itself equipped with a pédo-geochemical reference frame which must be used with prudence being given the liability heavy and old of the area as regards pollution, but which can be useful to explain or relativize certain phenomena. Charts of the under-typologies forest are useful elements of decision-making aid.
Les Combe S and hollow, the collars, and of many forms of the landscape determines the biological vegeation and corridors. (an inventory and a characterization of hollow are in hand in the North of France)

Hygroscopy

the hygroscopy, or rather the averages, maximum and minima of the thermo-hygrometrical couple are limiting factors, especially with local scales, because of many species circulate only within the limit of their préférendum , sometimes very reduced. Often the infrastructures, the urbanization, the devegetalisation, the drainage, the close-cropped cuts or the harvested cultures, or even of simple weeded tailboards, especially in the direction of the wind prevailing, brutally make fall the hygroscopy and increase the amplitude of the thermal shocks, while making vast territories hostile with many species, forest in particular. without these phenomena being perceptible for our directions. The anomalies of the “thermo-hygrometrical continuums” are measurable locally by networks of thermo-hygrometers or other means, but tiresome to chart. One does not know of them means of automatic cartography. Models could be available in the near future, but one does not have which it yet which are reliable and precise. It is known that the factor evapotranspiration related to the permanent vegetation is essential. The satellite or air imagery infra-red met some elements of thermohygrometric disturbances in obviousness (Recall: the Smell and the communication by the Hormone S, Phéromone S or Phytohormone S are essential for many species and determining for their circulation in the environment. However the humid air carries the odors well best than the dry air).

the wind

The exposure to the wind, and thus the pink of the winds are big factors, especially when the gradient of moisture is high; the wind propagates the Odeur S, the phéromones, the Pollen S, some Graine S, and of many Spore S and propagule S, but also sometimes the fire, and also the Pesticide S, the Poussière S, Aérosol S, Fumée S and of many Polluant S. the relief and the roughness of the vegetation cause turbulence and possibly phenomenon of acceleration or attenuation which have a great importance for fauna and the flora. Certain wind atlases highlight flow and zones the most exposed to the wind. These charts which can be declined on scale if necessary finer. As example, the regional wind atlas of North/Pas-de-calais in France (consultable on line) was created to help with the choice of the sites of the wind mills, One sees there in particular that the cliffs, the valleys and the peaks of the contour of the buttonhole of bolted are places or the winds strongly interact with the ecosystems (cf transport of propagules, pollens anémophiles, or pressure of the storms, contributions of salted Embrun S, etc) thanks to the fact that this Atlas also intended to facilitate the impact studies to cross the charts of wind with charts of ecological and landscape richnesses.

Others

Studies and/or a strategic and pro-active prospective day before can identify locally or for an area of the topics which it is useful to deepen and chart Some examples identified as with stakes strong by Management Environment of the District council North-Not of Calais, and often forgotten in the landscape and impact studies:

invasive exotic Species (vegetable, animal, fungic.)
Zoonose S; Tick S Disease of Lyme, hemoragic fevers, antibio-resistant microbes, swine-fever.), disease-causing agents of the type prion (cf CWD in North America) transmissible or not with the man
Diseases of the trees or the plants related to introductions and/or the impacts differed from dryness, of a loss of genetic diversity, etc
industrial After-effects (repercussions type and waste of métaleurop),
After-effects of war (deposits or loss of million ammunition containing nitrates, mercury, lead, antimony, arsenic, arsines, Yperite, chloropicrin, etc, but also physical and pedological upheaval of the grounds (polémosylvofacies.) in particular in the 11 departments of the “Red zone” of the war 14-18. It seems for example that the mushrooms are abnormally rare on the zones of engagements of the preceding wars) and that the mushrooms of the deadwood are very contaminated by the mercury (of which mercury accumulated at the time by the wooded and forest systems). Are the rates of lead or other metals also abnormally high in the game (Sanglier S for example)
Séquelles of Tchernobyl (Bioturbation by migratory birds? Re-concentration by the forests and mushrooms, etc). Studies showed that the forests could reconcentrer of the Radionucléide S dispersed by erosion, the wind or fauna. (Attention in particular with the migratory birds coming from Bélarus, woodcocks in particular, which can be very contaminated)
Séquelles related to husbandries (manure, pesticides, manures, drainage, irrigation, soles of ploughing, erosion of the grounds, degradation and compressing of the grounds, regroupings, removal of the meadows and the ponds, genetic loss of diversity, disappearance of the messicoles ones.)
Discharge S (Waste S domestic, hospital, veterinary, agroalimentary, flours at the risks, industrial banals or special) sometimes old, hidden or forgotten of all,
Accumulation of heavy metals in foams, trees, mushrooms which will be able several centuries to later really pose problem in the ecosystem, impact of the Pesticide S, etc (followed within the framework of several European projects)
Perturbateurs endocriniens (lures hormonal and disturbing, but also hormones of synthesis contaminating waste water, even in the long term as in the USA of products of the Viagra type found in the lakes and surface waters. (program interreg and other in progress)
GMO and induced risks of genetic Pollution and accumulation of toxin LT in the Rhizosphère, the Sediment S, of appearance of super-bad grasses resistant to several weeding total and producing their clean insecticides and/or fungicides.
Without forgetting the importance of the underwater corridors and subaqueous of fresh water and brackish mediums.

Theories

the cartography of the biological corridors can in particular rest the following theoretical corpora: Theories of Biogeography (Ecology of the Landscape)

ecological Insularisation,
ecological fragmentation (écopaysagère, or ecofragmentation).

Theory mathematics such as:

Fractales,
Percolation, connectivity,
attractile Chaos/

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