Benign

History

The settlement

The country consists of 2 geographical surfaces:

the north (today frontier of the Niger and the Burkina Faso) which knew the destiny of the people of savanna.
south and the center of the country which is marked by the history of the people of the Golfe of Guinea.

One finds this opposition in the qualifications of “Africa of the attics” and “Africa of the baskets”. First refers to the attic of Maïs or Mil which one finds in the field of African savannas, as with the Mali, Niger or Burkina Faso. The second is around the equator and corresponds, in Western Africa, in the south of all the littoral countries of the Gulf of Guinea. In the latter, because of the equatorial climate favorable to the Agriculture, nothing is used for to store, it is just enough “to carry”.

Until the 15th century, many people of savanna settle in north:

Bariba or Baatombu
Dendi
Djerma
Groussi
Haoussa
Mossi
Paragourma
Peul or Fulbe

Whereas littoral populations settle in the south and the center:

Fon and Aja, or Adja
Ewé
Gen
Undermined
Yoruba

The old social organization

The old communities structure themselves on their Lignage S. Vivant on restricted territories, these populations do not need political organization. As for their social organization, it is based on the respect of the habits and the dead ancestors. Authority there excerce orally by the division of these traditions. One always finds such populations in the North-West of the country: Berba, Kabyè or Tanéka.

When several lines gather, they are structured in Chefferie S. the chief can be a representative of an old family or a priest. He is surrounded dignitaries, in charge each one of a collective activity and forming a council.

From the 15th century, the social structure becomes more and more complex and of the kingdoms appear. He released 3 large cultural surfaces from them: Bariba in north, Yoruba and Aja - Ewé in the south.

The kingdoms Bariba (very short presentation)

The north of the country knew several kingdoms bariba and in particular the kingdom of Nikki. It is starting from this village of the North-East that a dynasty, created at the 16th century by Sunon Séro, extended its domination on the area. Its last king, Séro Kpéra, dies in 1831 as a combatant at the sides of Yorubas of Oyo (Nigeria) the attacks of the Peuls. The kingdom is disorganized when the colonial armies invade it at the end of the 19th century.

Their companies are structured in strict social classes: noble warriors, farmers commoners, craftsmen and slaves.

The Yoruba kingdoms

The area of influence of Yoruba covers is country. Their most remarkable kingdom is that of Kétou. Founded by Edé, it is still in full rise when it enters in war with the kingdom of Abomey in 1886.

The Aja-Ewé kingdoms

According to old oral tradition, Aja-Ewé emigrate as from the 14th century of the town of Tado, located on banks of the river Mono at the Togo. They establish in the south 2 kingdoms: with Sahè or Savi, and in Davié corresponding to the current town of Allada.

Towards 1620, the heirs to the kingdom of Allada dispute the throne. From their scission the formation rises from 2 additional kingdoms. In south-east, Zozérigbé creates the kingdom of Hogbonou in the locality of Adjatché, future Porto-Novo. And in north, Houégbadja (1645-1689) institutes the kingdom of the Dahomey, starting from its capital Abomey.

At the 18th century, a series of conquests is done under the authority of 12 traditional kings, to start with Gangnihessou. In 1724, Agadja (1708 - 1732) king of Dahomey seizes the kingdom of Allada. Then, in 1727, it subjects that of Savi. In 1741, it is with the turn of Ouidah to fall under the yoke from its successor Tegbessou. The country has from now on a broad window on the sea. The kingdom took the practice to exchange, commercially and politically, with the Portuguese and the Dutch, arrived at the end of the 15th century. Dahomey becomes an organized political entity, very original in the area. The kingdom is a dominant power. King Houégbadja has even at his disposal a quota of women Amazones, former huntresses of elephant S. It is company complex, refined, effective but such a cruel and bloody, in particular at the time of the royal funeral which was accompanied by human sacrifices.

As of the 17th century, these kingdoms, which are structured around the towns of Allada, Hogbonou and Abomey, thrive with the development of the local store. And one their activities which is based on the draft of the slaves interests the Négrier S Europeans. Netherlanders, Portuguese, Danish, English, and French install along the “Côte of the slaves” of the commercial counters.

1650 : construction of strong English with Ouidah
1664: installation of missionaries Breton capuchins in Ouidah
1704: construction of strong French with Ouidah
1752: installation of the Portuguese with Hogbonou which they rename Porto-Novo in 1782

In first half of the 19th century, the king Guézo of Dahomey gave to the richness of his kingdom other bases that the trade of the slaves, developing the culture of the palm tree with oil in order to answer the European application and introducing new cultures of American origin (corn, tomato, groundnut, tobacco). Regular and clean villages, and well ordered cultures cover the country.

Colonization

Since 1851, France signed a commercial treaty and of friendship with the chief of Porto-Novo, vassal of king Glélé of the Dahomey, which reigned of 1858 to 1889.

By the treaties of 1868 and 1878, the area of Cotonou, located between Ouidah, Portuguese counter, and Porto-Novo, was yielded to the France.

In 1883, the king of Porto-Novo, wishing to protect itself from the expansionist aimings of the Dahomey, signed a treaty of protectorate with the France.

One of the most mythical kings of the kingdom of the Dahomey, the very noble king Béhanzin (having for emblem the shark) attacked into 1890 the French with Cotonou, kept 73 days of the French hostages, then besieged other Oporto-noviens villages protected from the French. He stated even with the French to leave it quiet, defying proudly: “If you want the war, I am ready”. The insolence of Béhanzin, towards the French was considered to be intolerable and especially convenient, an good occasion for the French to finish some with this kingdom.

Béhanzin was captured in January 1894 and deportee in Martinique. The French establishments were gathered within the colony of the Dahomey. In North, the kingdom bariba of Nikki, which had reached its apogee at the 18th century before running up against the expansionism of the kingdom Nigerian of Ilorin, opposed a sharp resistance to French colonization.

In 1899, the Dahomey integrated the Africa-Western Frenchwoman (AOF) (see French, colonial empire). The borders were established according to a common agreement with Great Britain (fixed then at the Nigeria) and with the Germany (presents then to the Togo). After the First World War, schooling takes much importance (in particular thanks to the religious missions) and develops especially in the south which will become one of the principal political and intellectual hearths of AOF. It is at that time that many political parties were founded, while developed a press of opposition to the colonial system. Rejoined in free France during the Second world war, Dahomey became an autonomous State within the French Community in 1958. The country reached independence on August 1st, 1960 and entered, the next month, in the United Nations.

Independence

Since independence, the Benign one knew an animated political history. The first twelve years were remembered by a chronic instability, the old colonial elites, for the majority originating in the South, disputed the capacity.

In 1963, the north of the country wants its revenge, while the elites and the new middle-class seem little worried by the many challenges of the underdevelopment. It is at this period that a certain colonel Christophe Soglo (the uncle of Nicéphore Soglo) arrives on the political scene of the country, by forcing Hubert Maga, first president of the independent Dahomey, to resign. In six years, one recorded four coups d'etat, perpetrated in turn in a military regime good child (as a whole).

In 1970, the presidential Council made up of three members, Maga, Apithy and Ahomadégbé (a rotating presidency with three) seizes the power and suspends the Constitution. The round of the presidents could not be done. Indeed, only Maga could spend the 2 years appointed to the head of Dahomey. Hardly Ahomadégbé it started its turn of direction into 1972 that the army, under the direction of the captain Mathieu Kérékou, decides to take again in hand the government, relieves the presidential Council, and Mathieu Kérékou becomes the Head of the State of the Dahomey. It is quickly named commander. But the soldiers are disabled, without program and ideas. Their capacity is empty and it is in this vacuum that will engulf the ideas of the young soldiers and the students who lived in France the period of May 68.

The popular republic of Benign (1974/1990)

Thus, in November 1974, Mathieu Kérékou decides to direct the country in a way Marxist-Leninist. The people do not return from there, the notable ones and other diplomats remain dumb-founded by the news.

In 1975, to reduce the political weight of the South, the name of Dahomey was symbolically abandoned for that of Benign, of the name of the kingdom which had formerly opened out with the close Nigeria. The country becomes the “Popular republic of Benign”.

Mathieu Kérékou prohibits the voodoo ( paradoxically, Mathieu Kérékou even will have years a personal marabout later to him) , the traditional religion established well in the South. A new Constitution, founding a mode with sole party, was promulgated in 1977. The same year, an coup attempt of State supported by mercenaries fails and hardens the mode which becomes militaro-Marxist. Despite everything, the Marxism-béninisme proves less bad than others, and one apitoie more on the fate of the neighbors Togo alluvium that on his.

The Benign one tried vast programs of social economic development and but without good performances on arrival. Sign pragmatism and from moderation, three former presidents, Maga, Apithy and Ahomadégbé (imprisoned in 1972) were released in 1981.

Elected official chair by the revolutionary National Assembly in 1980, re-elected in 1984, Mathieu Kérékou escapes three coup attempts from State in 1988.

In 1987, the plans of the the IMF impose Draconian economic measures: additional taking away of 10% on the wages, freezing of the recruitings, put in retirement forced. In 1989, a new agreement with the the IMF on a programme of adjustments of the economic structures causes a massive strike of the students and civils servant, claiming the payment of their wages and their purses.

In this end of the Years 1980, the popular capacity hardly has more than a few thousands of convinced, a small dozen says the rumor. One ends up wondering whether there is still somebody who really believes in this Marxism proclaimed of the day at the following day (without the ex- Soviet Union imposing something on it). Thus the social and political disturbances will lead Mathieu Kérékou to give up the ideology Marxist-Leninist and to accept the introduction of a National conference, bringing together the representatives of the various political movements.

One keeps old mode only the name of Benign which sounds well. The conference is a true democratic success. Mathieu Kérékou even declares: “I accept all the conclusions of your work”. A new constitution is established.

A transition government, set up in 1990, opens the way with the return of the democracy and the multi-party system. The Prime Minister, Nicéphore Soglo, beats Mathieu Kérékou with the presidential election of March 1991. Mathieu Kérékou from goes away “without noise” and thus becomes one of the rare military presidents arrived by a coup d'etat to being eliminated democratically.

Years of the revival

Nicéphore Soglo restores the Vaudou to reconcile the traditional capacities and fact of January 10th of each year the national Day of the Vaudou. However the structural adjustments and the compression of the public expenditure recommended by the the IMF come to revive the general dissatisfaction with the population. Moreover, the traditional clandestine traffics open out at the great day (whiskey, gasoline, cement, cars…)

After having lost its majority within the legislative Parliament, the president Nicéphore Soglo, having shown nepotism by its adversaries, by Mathieu Kérékou at presidential of March 17th 1996 is beaten. It is a shock for Nicéphore Soglo which after having shouted with the plot, sends its congratulations to Mathieu Kérékou and from there will contemplate more than four months, out of Africa, the reasons of its fatal errors.

Democratically, Mathieu Kérékou is of return on the Beninese political scene, after having directed the country during seventeen years (of 1972 with 1990) in the political and economic fiasco of from now on the former “Popular republic of Benign”.

The legislative elections of March 1999 give accuracy the victory to the Renaissance of Benign the (RB), the movement of the opposition directed by Rosine Soglo, wife of the former president Nicéphore Soglo. These elections mark the failure of the African Mouvement for the Democracy And Progress (MADEP), the Party of one of the close relations of President Kérékou, the business man Séfou Fagbohoun.

However, in March 2001, Mathieu Kérékou is re-elected president of the Republic with 84,06% of the voices. Arrived at the head at the first turn, vis-a-vis its predecessor Nicéphore Soglo, he will be confronted with the desistance from this last like to that of Adrien Houngbédji arrived in third position. These two outgoing candidates qualified the poll of “masquerade”.

Tarnished by suspicions of electoral frauds and old of sixty-seven years, Mathieu Kérékou thus starts a second consecutive mandate under fragile economic conditions.

The hope Yayi Profit

Since 2001, the economic difficulties did not cease developing with the Benign one, that it is due to the economic difficulties of the Port authority of Cotonou, to the oil crisis, the crisis of the sector of cotton, very wide smuggling, too many administrative staffs or to the serious attacks of electricity created by the drynesses. The Benign one is during one difficult economic time that only agriculture, very diversified manages to maintain competitive vis-a-vis its neighbors.

Thus at the time of the elections of March 2006, the Benineses decided to express their “short-nap cloth it bowl” and that the beginner in policy, the former president of the African western Banque of development (BOAD), Dr. Boni Yayi succeeds the general surprise with Mathieu Kérékou with 75% of the votes (let us note a strong rate of participation of 76%)

Mathieu Kérékou who refused to change the Constitution to be able to represent itself, was not opposed less by it to Boni Yayi, too beginner at his taste.

Indeed, at a few days of the results the former president, called the chameleon, plunged the country in the doubt, by affirming publicly that during the course of the election there had been dysfunctions in the organization, with problems of electoral rolls and voter registration cards.

In spite of that, the coordination of the independent international observers was pleased during a press conference with Cotonou, unfolding of the second turn of the presidential election to Benign, judging that it had been of “very good behavior”.

Policy

Journalism

There is with Benign great freedom of press. Also, because of that, there exists T a “boom” of the media, in one of the poorest countries of the world. In the economic capital, Cotonou with its million inhabitants, approximately 40 newspapers daily are published, perhaps the record in the world - although there is more than 50% of illiterates. The eight million inhabitants of Benign can follow the ORTB of the State and more than 70 private radios and 4 private televisions. The majority of more than 1.000 journalists have only a “ training one the job ” (of professionalisation). (During the dictatorship, two thirds of the journalists had an education of the State.) The new media are lower-income group and because of that sensitive to the Corruption - only approximately five are profitable. They receive a whole small budget of the state and very few advertisers. At Reporters without borders, the Benign one is in 23e place.

Subdivisions

Climate

The climate is tropical, hot and wet in the whole with seasonal and geographical nuances which the extension of the country in latitude, the relief and the alternation of the seasons impose. It rains from 900 to 1300 millimetres of water per annum, the most sprinkled areas are in the south-eastern angle, of Cotonou to Oporto Novo, the Atacora between Natitingou and Djougou, the areas of Dassa and Ndali in the north of Parakou. The maxima of precipitations are in the south (equatorial climate), of mid-March at semi July, and more slightly in November and December. The Monsoon, oceanic and in charge of moisture, blows from April at November, south-west. The Harmattan continental and dry, breath in the opposite direction of the Monsoon (comes from north, of the the Sahel), from November to May, bringing an orange ocher dust. Water the content, always important, ranges between 65 and 95%. The average temperature remains included/understood enters 22 and 34°C, April and May being the hottest months (just after Harmattan blew during 6 months, before monsoon does not bring its rains).

Geography

Photographs of the Benign one

Random links: