Ancient Rome

The ancient Rome indicates the town of Rome and the territories which it politically dominated in the Antiquité. The ancient idea of Rome is inseparable from that of Roman civilization. Regrouping of villages to the VII E, Rome dominates the whole of the world the Mediterranean N and Western-European of.

Beginnings of the Roman city

The foundation of Rome (-753)

The legend

The birth of Rome is evoked in legendary accounts told by Virgile and Tite-Live, inter alia. In Énéide , long poem with the glory of the emperor Auguste, Virgile tells the adventures of Trojan the Énée, wire of Venus. This one manages to flee of Troy when this one is ransacked by the Achaens with his son Ascagne (or Iule), a group of Troyens and while carrying his/her father Anchise on his shoulders. After many adventures' and loves opposed with Didon, the queen of Carthage, it unloads in the Latium where it founds the town of Lavinium''. His/her son Ascagne founds Alba-the-Long'. This legend makes it possible to give to Jules César and its heir Auguste a divine origin since they are presented in the form of descendants of Ascagne (Iule).

After Ascagne, twelve kings follow one another Alba. Thirteenth the Numitor is détrôné by his/her brother Amulius'. To draw aside all future rival, this one done of his niece, Rhéa Silvia, a Vestal, i.e. a priestess of Vesta having the obligation to remain virgin. But the god Mars falls in love with it and from their union are born two twins, Romulus and Rémus. The young person Vestale is immured alive and its sons are exposed on the the Tiber (according to Denys d' Halicarnasse of many versions exist, just as easily on the rape that on the inflicted sorrow). They are initially collected by a she-wolf which nurses them then by a couple of shepherds which raises them'.

Become adult, they restore the throne of their grandfather Numitor' and decide to found a new city. They rely on the Auspice S to know which of them will reign on the city, but an argument bursts between the two brothers. During the brawl, Romulus keep silent Remus''. This legend took its final form at the end of fourth century BC according to the tradition, the Fondation of Rome goes back to 753 av. J. - C. the Romans count the years starting from the supposed date of the birth of their city ( Ab Urbe condita ).

The Royalty (-753 with -509)

The company and institutions of Roman monarchy

The base of the Roman Société of the royal time is consisted the gentes , together of the families having, or applicant to have, the same common ancestor. With the head of each family, one finds the paterfamilias which has an absolute capacity on each member of its family.

The citizens are organized in tribes by Romulus (the Tities , the Ramnes and the Luceres ), themselves divided into 10 curies, with at its head a curio . All the members of a curia are linked by jointly practiced worships and sacrifices. Each curie provides hundred infantrymen, that is to say a centurie, and each tribe hundred riders. The curies themselves are divided into ten parts, carried out by a decurio . Romulus divided into thirty equal parts the Roman territory and each curie accepted a part of it. Part of the town of Rome was reserved for the construction of the temples and sanctuaries and the public use ( Ager publicus ).

The Comices curiates are the assembly of the curies, the most former assembly political of Rome, convened and chaired by the king. This assembly chooses the Magistrat S, ratifies the laws, and decide war when the king calls upon their decision.

The Sénat would be an invention of Romulus', including/understanding in the beginning hundred members, to arrive to three hundreds with the extension of the territory of Rome. It gathers the shepherds more influential families. The Sénat plays a key function at the time of interregnum, when it is necessary to name new a king. This last does not have obligation to consult the Sénat, but not to do it is to act as tyrant, such Tarquin Superb the.

Romulus distinguished the citizens from higher row, the Patriciens, which were to help it to manage the incipient city (by occupying the functions of priests and Magistrat S), and placed the remainder of the people under their responsibilities, each Patricien having to protect those for which it is responsible: its customers.

The king has the absolute capacity. He would be elected by the assembled of the people, and this choice would be ratified by the Sénat. The foreign origin of the last kings de Rome, Etruscan and Corinthian, watch the already remarkable opening of the Roman aristocracy on a vast zone of the world the Mediterranean N.

The Roman Republic (-509 with -27)

The word republic comes from the Latin LMBO publica , which means “the public thing”. To control the city is thus a public affair and collective. The currency of the republic is Senatus Populusque Romanus , the senate and the Roman people. It symbolizes the union of the Roman Sénat, where in the beginning the families Patricien sit born, and of the whole of the Roman Citoyens.

Indeed, the Romans are divided into two groups, the Patriciens and the Plébéiens.

The Plébéiens form the mass of the craftsmen and peasants. They live apart from the organization Patricien and do not honor any particular ancestor.

The Patriciens are often owners of cultivated vast domains. They belong to famous families, the gentes . Each people has its own worships of which that of the ancestors and its traditions. It includes/understands a more or less large number of customers who owe obedience with their “owner” and receive in exchange helps and assistance where necessary.

This aristocracy, after the advent Republic, ends little by little up losing its privileges with the profit of the Nobilitas . It is acquired under the Empire as under the République by the birth, either in a line Patricien, or for the Plébéien S, in a family having at least a Consul in his ancestors. The Nobilitas is very attached to its symbols. The portraits of ancestors are preserved in the atrium and belong to the procession at the time of the funeral. The ancestors receive public praises of the ancestors. This makes it possible the individual to show at the same time his own nobility and its membership privileged.

Beginnings of the Republic

The history of the beginnings of the republic is very obscure: apart from the archaeological discoveries, which allow only exceptionally a narration of the events, we do not have contemporary sources of this period. One can thus write of it the history only starting from the historical accounts that the Romans of them themselves gave, accounts often vague, sometimes contradictory, where the legend and the rewriting with fine policies mix with the memory with the oldest events.

Advent of the Republic and fight against Tarquins

The tradition makes Lucius Junius Brutus, the nephew of the last king Tarquin Superb the, the legendary founder of the Roman République, in 509 av. J. - C.' the Tarquins raised the Etruscan cities of Véies and Tarquinii against the incipient republic which overcame them. Porsenna, king Etruscan of Clusium takes Rome to restore Tarquin', but gives up in front of the obstinacy of the Romans. The tyrant took refuge with Tusculum where it pushed his son-in-law Octavius Mamilius with the war. Combined Latin , it led the ultimate combat against Rome to the lake Régille where it was overcome, it dies a few years later with Cumes where it made of its host, the tyrant Aristodème, his heir.

The fight plebs/patriciat of fifth century BC

The plebs is born from the secession of 495 av. J. - C., when part of the civic body leaves the town of Rome, whereas the convocation by the Consul S was imminent to face a foreign war, and refuses to return in spite of the prayers of the Patricien S. It is crushed debts' and fights against the arbitrary one of the Roman constitution of 509 av. J. - C.: at the beginning the Plèbe does not have any right, all the magistratures are reserved for the Patriciens.

On promises of the Senate, the Plèbe agrees to turn over under the banners and Rome deals with three enemies, but the fight as soon as takes again the finished war, and the Sénat refuses to yield, with the image of Appius Claudius Sabinus. After some sudden starts, the plebs being withdrawn on the Aventin, they obtain the creation of the powerful orators of the plebs, charged to defend their interests. They can be opposed to any law suggested by the others Magistrat S. It is the intercessio .

Several mutinies shake the Roman army, agitation is strong in the streets of Rome, and the Republic must face a multitude of enemies. Gradually, the powerful orators of the plebs gain capacity.

Then they claim the written setting of the laws, in order to know the capacities Consul surfaces, and that the legal organization (in particular the ius matrimonium ) benefits all. Thus an extraordinary commission, the Décemvirs, was established to write these laws: the Law of the XII Tables, published on the Forum Romanum in 450 av. J. - C.. But the Plèbe must fight and force the resignation of the Décemvirs', before the calm one does not return to Rome.

The powerful orators of the plebs propose the election of plebeian consuls in 445 av. J. - C., driving with the creation of the military powerful orators to consular capacity, load accessible to the plebeian , which becomes increasingly frequent. Little by little the Plèbe obtains the access to all the magistratures (the Questure in 421 av. J. - C., the first questeurs plebeian were elected in 409 av. J. - C.; first plebeian Consul in 366 av. J. - C., first plebeian dictator in 356 av. J. - C., first plebeian Critic in 350 av. J. - C.). However the majority of the magistrates are always Patriciens.

During all this period, the Roman République faces a multitude of enemies, and is unceasingly in war against people Italiques, by having often recourse to the election of a dictator to face the external threats, and is several times close to the catastrophe.

Institutions of the Roman Republic

The Roman Citoyens are gathered within assemblies called Comices: the Comices tributes and the Comices centuriates, created according to the tradition by Servius Tullius.

In the latter, they are divided into 193 Centurie S distributed in 5 classes Cens itaires, according to the fortune of the citizens. There are 18 equestrian centuries gathering the richest citizens and 80 centuries for the citizens of first class (more than 100.000 Sesterce S of fortune), which gives 98 centuries for the rich person owners, absolute majority. Each centurie is a unit of vote and the vote starts with the richest centuries. As soon as the majority is reached, the vote stops. It is enough that the equestrian class and the first class get along and the least fortunate citizens never vote. The Roman République is thus makes of it a Oligarchie which draws aside poorest from the public affairs. The Comices centuriates indeed elect the higher magistrates, the Consul S, the Censeur S then the Préteur S, and decide declarations of war starting from the middle of fifth century BC

In the Comices tributes, the citizens are divided into territorial tribes: four urban and ten rural, at the origin under Servius Tullius, up to 31 rural in 241 av. J. - C., which constitute as many units of vote. They elect the Magistrat lower ures, the municipal official S and the Questeur S and especially the powerful orators of the plebs. They ratify the peace treaties and vote many laws. The landowners are registered in the tribe where they reside, one of the rustic tribes, the not-owners, traders and craftsmen, in one of the tribes of Rome. The 4 urban tribes are over-populated, and the voices of the not-owners thus have only few importances vis-a-vis the voices of the owners, richest, who are divided in 10 to 31 tribes (according to the times), which are much less better furnished, giving to each member a more important vote, more especially as the freed are them also recorded in the urban tribes.

The Comices tributes meet on the Forum Romanum while the Comices curiates (having an importance especially during the royalty) and centuriates meets on the Champ de Mars, outside the crowned enclosure ( Pomerium ) of the Roman capital.

The senate is a royal institution (created by Romulus). It gathered in the beginning the household heads Patricien born. With the Republic, it gathers initially the higher magistrates left their load then little by little all the magistrates. The list of the senators, the album, is updating all the glosses (five years) by the critics. Those can register there private individuals for important facts of weapons but that remains exceptional. The senate delivers its opinion on the laws suggested by the Magistrat S. This opinion is called a Senatus consults . Old the Consul S votes in first then old the Préteur S. the moral authority of the senate, the auctoritas , is considerable. Its opinions are always followed by the magistrates. Helped by the Questeur S, the senate manages the Treasury. It directs the foreign affairs and the war with the Consul S. It also deals with the civic religion.

All the magistratures are collegial. Each magistrate can be opposed to his colleagues (the intercessio ) and to any magistrate who is lower to him and even if required to sanction this one. All the magistratures last one year. The most important magistrates are the Consul S which direct the city and the army. But to be able to present itself to the Consul At, it is necessary to have climbed the career of the honors, the Cursus honorum (only by the Lex Villia Annalis in 180 av. J. - C was formalized.), i.e. to be elected previously with all the lower magistratures in a precise order: quaestorship, municipal administration, préture. For having occupied a load, it is necessary to wait several years before being able to present itself to the higher magistrature, with the result that a politician cannot at least aspire to the Consul At before 40 years. In the event of danger, the Consul S can choose a dictator which have the full powerss for six months.

Life under the Republic

The Romans preserved country practices a long time carrying out an hard life and hard. At the beginning of the Republic the small holders are numerous. It is them which provide troops to the Roman armed .

Thereafter, even after considerable transformations, the social, political and cultural ideal of a city made up autonomous farmers with the frugal life always kept an important force. The recall with simplicity, largely idealized, of the ancestors, with their manners ( mos maiorum ) was a constant of the political life and cultural of Rome and constitutes a stereotype mobilized by many sources and many large characters of Rome.

That should not however mask the deep transformations which touched the Roman company during the five centuries of existence of the République. In spite of the existence of an important cultural continuity, in particular in the religious and legal fields, the mobilization of a certain social ideal, between -509 and 31 av. J. - C. it is not only the life and the organization of the Roman Société which changes, but also the definition even of the “Romain”.

If, at the beginning of the Republic, the Romans are the citizens of restricted number of an ordinary aristocratic city, the conquests, the cultural opening that they involve and social changes that they induce, especially after the Second Punic War, transform the Roman Société enormously. Not only, at the end of the Republic, the town of Rome became an immense metropolis gathering of the hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, but the Romans received the dividends of a conquest which extended to all the the Mediterranean. Their company was transformed by it: the slavery took a considerable importance, the economic life considerably became more and more complex, enriched and intensified, the social variations increased considerably and the political balance of the aristocracy senatorial flew in glare, abused by the ambitions of the largest generals.

The end of the République sees a place increasingly larger granted to the hellenistic Greek culture, quite different from the antiquated and traditional hellenism which was present in Rome as of the royal time, at the same time as a considerable extension of the romanity: when the République yields the place to the empire, all the inhabitants free of Italy became Roman Citoyens, and this legal unification is accompanied by a cultural unification. The life of the Romans under the Republic is thus marked, across quite real continuities, by a very strong diversity according to the social periods, areas and groups.

The Romans live in a simple house with few pieces of furniture, the Domus . One finds this simplicity in their food and their appropriate dress. Even the Toge of the patricians is not, at the beginning of the republic, that a roll of material without ornament.

The family obeys the paterfamilias , which has any authority on its woman and her children. But little by little the right of life and death that the paterfamilias had on its family disappears. The Matron, vêtue of a Stola , deals with the domestic affairs but it remains minor perpetual under the authority of her husband or his oldest son as long as it remains with the hearth i.e. subjected to the lares.

It is initially within the family that the religion is practiced. The every day and with all the meals the Romans practice religious rites in front of the hearth whose flames ( ignis ) are symbols of their reverences towards the Pénates which take care on the regularity of the provisioning, the lares which protect the household and the genius which ensures the paterfamilias and with the family her vitality.

The Romans think that many divinities assist them birth with dead in their house. The dead are incinerated and their ashes are placed in a ballot box buried with very the ground or placed in a monument for richest. With their birthday the late ones receive flowers, food, drinks. The obligation to return a worship to late makes necessary the fact of having children or of adopting some. Indeed the Romans believe that deaths neglected return on ground to worry the alive ones.

The religion under the Republic

The ancient Roman religion is before a whole ritualistic polytheism. It does not have a body of doctrines nor a specific revelation, but is organized above all by the practice. They are the various ritual ones, like the sacrifice, which institutes the order of the world and the categories to think it: in the Roman religion, like underlined it John Scheid, “to do is to say”. The rites are thus transmitted in the most scrupulous possible way and the Roman religion is deeply traditionalist. The absence of unified doctrines, separation between the personal conviction and the literal execution of the ritual, however authorize openings and transformations, in particular the reception of new divinities, the syncretism with other mythologies, the development of speculations metaphysics and philosophical.

The Romans are very pious and superstitious people. They honor a very great number of divinities. Apart from the domestic divinities, they venerate several large gods compared to the Pantheon of the Greek Mythologie. Jupiter, equivalent Latin of Zeus, is the king of the gods. He is the Master of the lightning of the light and the oaths. He is associated with Minerve and Junon and forms the triad capitoline which protects the city.

Abstractions are divinisés like Fortuna , Virtus or Fides . Thus Abéona and Adeona learns how to the small children to go and come, Iterducca and Doniducca to be moved away from the house and to return from there.

For political reasons or practices, the Romans do not hesitate to adopt the gods of the other cities or other people. Asclépios “was adopted” to fight against the fevers of the marshes. The most famous example is certainly that of Junon the guardian goddess of the city close to Veies. At the time of the conquest of this city, the Romans claim to use the evocatio , to invite Junon to leave its residence and to come to Rome where it is accommodated with honor. After their victory, the Romans draw up a temple on the Palatin. Certain gods seem properly Latin S like Janus, the god with two faces, divinity of the doors and the crossroads or Flora which governs all that flowers. The Romans organize their calendar not to forget any god, for fear those do not harm to them.

The Colleges of priests specialized in the Roman religion are:

the college of the Pontiff S, chaired by the large pontiff ( Pontifex maximus ), who plays a very important part in the organization of the religion;
the college of the Flamines, 3 major and 12 minors, composed Roman priests dedicated to the worship of only one god;
the college of the Vestals, composed of six members, who must take care that the fire of the city never dies out and are dedicated to chastity;
the college of the Omen S, composed priests specialized in interpretation of the signs sent by Jupiter, main god of the “signs”;
the college of the Fétiaux or Féciaux, composed priests, mainly charged in the relations between Rome and the other people so that the Pax deorum is not broken;
the college of the Brothers Arvales, composed of 12 priests, specialized in the celebration of the worship of Dea Dia, equivalent of the goddess Cérès;
the college of the Luperques, made up of wire of the five older aristocratic families, downward of the founders of Rome.
the brotherhood of the Saliens, dedicated to the worship of Mars.

Rome with the conquest of the Mediterranean

See also: Roman Republic, Chronology of the Roman Republic, List of the wars of the Roman Republic

An army of citizens

The Roman expansion in Italy

Rome is essential in Latium

Fourth century BC, a turning in the history

The IV E thus represents a major turning in the history of Rome, because it poses the bases of the expansion which followed by the extension of the Roman territory until the Campanie, in spite of the strong resistance of the mountain dwellers Samnites. The contemporary historians identify several factors which explain these changes: the traumatism of the Gallic invasions, and the difficulties which followed with its neighbors, seem to have persuaded the Romans more not to accept threats and to start an expansion imperialist which one sometimes could qualified of defensive imperialism.

In addition, at this period, Rome knew to put an end to its social divisions and the long opposition of the Plèbe and the Patriciat: the roadbase of the Plèbe can from now on share the prerogatives which were reserved for the patricians: a new Roman aristocracy was worked out, the Nobilitas , offering a political stability and social much larger within the framework of the ideal of a Oligarchie of pars which could however offer certain openings. Rome could thus propose a political model alluring with the aristocracies of the other cities the Mediterranean, considerable diplomatic asset. The diplomacy indeed played in the Roman conquest a role often neglected with the profit of the purely military aspects. The deditio of Capoue in 343 av. J.C constitutes the best example of it: to profit from Roman protection, the city campanienne of Capoue was devoted completely to Rome which saw its zone of traditional action brutally extended to the rich person area who was the Campanie. A solid alliance was constituted which consolidated confidence that Rome had in itself, the annexation of the Latium which followed with the dissolution of the Latin Ligue, posed also the bases of new relationship between Rome and some of the conquered people. The concession of the established among sine suffragio - all civil rights except for the right to vote - allowed a legal unification and the consolidation of strong bonds without calling into question, initially, the political balance of Rome. The case of Capoue is there still best examples: if Capouans receive the established among " sine suffragio" , the aristocracy of the city received the complete established among and became Roman: the 1600 knights capouans were in addition to receive Plèbe of their city the sum that the Roman knights received in Rome. The interpenetration of the elites was so important that one speaks sometimes about “state romano-campanien”, always is it that a mechanism essential of the conquests to come had been set up: Rome was based on the local aristocracies, or on a part as of these aristocracies, to extend its territory, it exchanges some offered to these aristocracies political stability and insertion developing in a vaster unit, the access to a higher scale. The increasing diffusion and the strong prestige of the Greek culture offered to these various aristocracies a whole of shared cultural references and models artistic for médiatiser as well their relation reciprocal as their social domination. Consequently Rome encountered real difficulties in its conquests only in two types of wars: on the one hand wars with people which did not have such an organized civic aristocracy, like the Samnites, on the other hand wars with other empires resting on the same principles, like Carthage. In these two cases the Roman military value, and the political stability which made it possible to resist heavy defeats, played a fundamental role.

Italy becomes Roman

The foundation of Frégelles and serious tensions with Naples, quoted divided where the aristocracy leans for Roman alliance and the plebs for Samnite alliance, cause an immediate hostile reaction of the Samnites. The conflict lasts 40 years. The Romans gain their first successes, the Greek city of Naples calls upon them. The war is carried in territory samnite, initiative which ends in the humiliating capture of two legions by the samnite Caius Pontius with the Bataille of the Forks Caudines, in 321 av. J. - C.'. The Romans start in 312 av. J. - C. the construction of the Via Appia which connects Rome to Capoue. In 298 av. J. - C., the hostilities begin again. The Romans crushed a coalition of Samnites, Etruscan, Ombriens and various people Italiques and Gaulois with the Bataille of Sentinum, Samnites capitulated in 290 av. J. - C., Rome controls their cities and annexed their territory: the main obstacle with a domination of Italy had fallen.

Starting from 282 av. J. - C., Rome makes sure the domination of the cities of the Grande Greece in the south of the peninsula. The most powerful city of the South, Tarente, tries well to stop the walk of Rome by calling upon the king of Épire, Pyrrhus Ier. But, after some transitory successes, this one are withdrawn and the Greek cities must be acknowledged overcome. Tarente falls in 271 av. J. - C. and enters in its turn the orbit of the Roman power.

The Sallentins and the Picéniens were in their subjected turn. In 265 and 264 av. J. - C., Rome takes and destroys the Etruscan city of Volsinies and the Etruscan cities in the South of the Arno are attached to the Roman République.

The Roman expansion in the Mediterranean

See also: Punic Wars, Wars of Illyrie, Wars of Macedonia, War of Numance

Starting from 264 av. J. - C., begins the great confrontation against Carthage which marks a turning in the history of Rome. Carthage, old colony phenician developed commercial counters initially, then fulcrums and colonies in all the the Western Mediterranean and in particular in the west of the Sicily thanks to its company spirit. Rome is wary of the Carthaginian ambitions in Sicily. It is the cause of the First Punic War which lasts nearly twenty-five years. Naval victory of the proconsul Lutatius Catulus in front of the Égates islands, in the west of the Sicily, constrained Carthage to sign a humiliating peace. It gives up the Sicily, then the Sardinia and Corsica and pays a tribute.

After the First Punic War, Rome extends in Illyrie (Guerres of Illyrie), after having overcome the Ligures and the Insubres. On its side, Carthage launches out to the conquest of the Hispanie. This expansion worries Rome which makes reappear the hostilities in 219 av. J. - C. But the Republic finds opposite it, in the person of Hannibal, a frightening adversary, a genious politician and soldier. This one decides to attack by terrestrial way with a quota of 70.000 men and elephants, animals of war impressive. A long walk their fact of crossing the Hispanie, the south of the Gaulle, then to cross the the Alps. Hannibal then gains in the north of Italy a series of victories and advances towards the south while crossing the the Apennines. There, on banks of the lake Trasimène, it crushes once again a Roman army on June 23rd 217 av. J. - C. the Senate raises an large army, but Hannibal reduces it to its thank you with Cannes, in August 216 av. J. - C. the allied cities in Rome in the south of Italy (but in the south only) join with Hannibal. This one settles with Capoue.

Rome refuses to be inclined. Twenty-three new legions are enlisted with in particular slaves freed for the occasion. Rome takes again the offensive, seizes Syracuse then of Capoue in 211 av. J. - C. Having the control of seas, it sent to a task force in Hispanie then in Africa under the direction of Scipion the African. After the conquest of Hispanie, Scipion is right finally of Hannibal in 202 av. J. - C. in the flat of Zama, which puts an end to the Second Punic War. Overcome, which loses their external possessions must pay an enormous tribute in Rome which becomes the first power of the Western Mediterranean in 202 av. J. - C. the Roman République extends on the Italy, the Hispanie and the Africa. Carthage is finally destroyed in 146 av. J. - C. during the Third Punic War deliberately decided by the Sénat. After a three year old seat, Scipion Émilien takes the city, shaves it, curses its ground.

To the II E, Rome launches out (more by the circumstances that by a definite plan) to the conquest of the Mediterranean East. Towards 190 av. J. - C., war against the king séleucide Antiochos III', of which the expansion threatens Greece. The conquests of Antiochos III in Asia Mineure are divided between kingdoms protected by Rome: kingdoms of Pergame, the Bridge, and Bithynie.

In 168 av. J. - C., the Macedonia is conquered, after several wars'. Between 149 and 146 av. J. - C., revolt of Macedonia and Achaean league: Roman victory, plundering and destruction of Corinth. In 133 av. J. - C., the kingdom of Pergame falls in heritage in Rome. It gives rise to the province of Asia.

On the other side of the Italy, Rome holds part of the Hispanie since the Punic Wars, where the revolts will be frequent.

Armies of citizens and proletarians

See also: marianic Reform, War of Mithridate, War of Jugurtha, War of Cimbres, War of Gaules

Germains invade the Gaulle and crush the Roman armies on several occasions. In 107 av. J. - C., the consul Marius operates a major military reform, while admitting, in the rows of the army, the proletarians, i.e. the citizens not owners, who did not have, up to that point, access to the legions. An army of the poor succeeds thus the armies of landowners, but it is a professional army, ready to be devoted to its chief and to open the road of the capacity to him, the more so as this one is generous. The new army allows Rome and Marius to triumph vis-a-vis two threats'.

In Africa, Jugurtha holds in failure the military chiefs sent by Rome'. In the north of the Alps, the Cimbres coming from the Jutland and the Teutons originating in the Mecklembourg, devastate the south of the Gaulle, become a Roman province in 125 av. J. - C. under the name of Narbonnaise. Marius, named proconsul, succeeds in overcoming Jugurtha', then, re-elected extra-legally Consul, it demolishes the Teutons, then the Cimbres in Cisalpine. Marius becomes the saver of Rome. Agrarian laws reward its veterans in their giving batches for ground to be cultivated. To remain with the capacity, Marius joins chiefs of the popular party.

In 90 av. J. - C. and 50 av. J. - C., the Romans carry out several wars against Mithridate VI Eupator, king of the Pont, under the commands of Sylla then Licinius Murena and Licinius Lucullus. The campaigns against Mithridate VI have like consequence the Roman intervention in close Orient and the conquest of the Syria and the kingdom of the Macchabées in -64 and 63 av. J. - C. by the consul Pompée.

Finally the conquest of the Gaulle by Jules César between 58 and 51 av. J. - C.' watch which the victory became an instrument of being able for the victorious generals.

Crises of the Republic

The land question

The war benefits the rich person especially. The rows of the citizens small holders were cleared up, especially during the Second Punic War. There are thus less farmers. The campaigns cover vast pastures. The corn imported of Sicily competition that of the small Latin producers who, ruined, at low prices sell their grounds to the great landowners and from there will meet the urban to Rome Plèbe. The big families constitute thus immense fields, the Latifundia , where are installed peasants not owners, the colonists, and many slaves. They form the nobilitas , the nobility which monopolizes the magistratures and fills the Sénat. Beside this land nobility, a new class of business men appears who grow rich in the trade, the bank and the credit. Their richness enables them to hold an important place in the order of the knights. The nobility and the knights intend themselves to exploit the incipient empire which was divided into provinces. Business men and magistrates resulting from the nobility grow rich by often plundering them in a systematic way.

Downtown on the other hand, unemployment increases, paid labor was competed with by the mass of the slaves brought by the conquests. Rome becomes a variegated city gathering, beside the Roman Citoyens, of the Italian , the Greek , the freed from all horizons. This crowd maintains a constant agitation in the city. Starting from 133 av. J. - C., the tensions multiply between the rich person and the poor, more especially as the noisiest luxury made its appearance in Rome. However an attempt at reform takes shape with the Gracques. Tiberius Gracchus is resulting from a noble big family. He thinks that a Land reform is necessary to solve the problem of the Plèbe. He becomes Tribun of the plebs and deposits a law limiting the occupation of the public domain to 125 hectares per anybody. The illegal occupations of the grounds by the nobility are declared null. A composite commission exclusively of family members of the Gracques is charged to set out again the grounds between the poorest citizens. The dissatisfied nobility causes riots. Tiberius Gracchus is massacred. Ten years later, his/her brother Caïus Gracchus takes again the torch. He is elected powerful orator in 123 and 122 av. J. - C. He withdraws with the Sénat the nomination of the governors of the provinces and gives to the knights the exploitation taxes in Asia. It decides to found colonies with batches of ground for the poor citizens and makes distribute corn for them at low prices. He also perishes assassinated in 121 av. J. - C. All its reforms are abandoned. Only the knights preserve their advantages.

Civil wars

After the Gracques, comes the time from ambitious which fights for the capacity. Thanks to the military reform operated in 107 av. J. - C. and with its victories in Africa and Gaulle, Marius dominates the political life, associating the chiefs of the popular party with his capacity. But of the disorders burst in 100 av. J. - C. Marius uses his troops against its old allies. It must however leave the capacity. In 91 av. J. - C., begins the social Guerre. The Italians revolt to claim their independence. Indeed those although forming part for a long time of the Republic, they do not have for the acquired majority the statute of citizens and are always regarded as subjects. To put an end to the revolt, Rome grants to all the Italians the Roman Citoyenneté. In Rome even, the riots follow one another in each election. The republican institutions have evil to function normally. The knights and the nobilitas clash for the exploitation of the provinces.

In 88 av. J. - C., Lucius Cornelius Sylla is elected Consul. It prepares a military campaign against Mithridate VI Eupator, king of the Pont when a plebiscite withdraws to him its command with the profit of Marius. It goes then on Rome with its troops, seizes the power by the force and makes kill all its adversaries. It then leaves to make the war. Marius benefits from it to return to the capacity by the force. He cancels all the measurements taken by Sylla, but dies rather quickly. Its partisans keep the capacity and face Sylla returned victorious of the East in 83 av. J. - C. Thanks to its victory with the battle of Sacriport, this one opens the doors of Rome. It is shown then pitiless, making massacre the prisoners, pursueing its opponents. It makes publish in the streets of the city the list of all proscribed. Sylla operates then political reforms. It doubles the number of senators by adding 300 knights to it. It opens the Senate with old the Questeur S. It prohibits with the Consul S to have armies in Italy in the South of the Rubicon. It imposes that the provinces are managed by proconsuls or propréteurs, i.e. old Consul S and old Préteur S. It reorganizes justice by publishing the laws cornéliennes which specify the offenses and the crimes. The Romans see in Sylla the providential hero equipped by the gods with a quasi supernatural chance. But whereas its capacity seemed makes to last, it is withdrawn without explanation of the political life in 79 av. J. - C. and dies the following year.

The first triumvirate and the rise of César

But quickly of new revolts new military forwardings involve thus supporting the emergence of new victorious generals who dispute the capacity.

In Hispanie, a former partisan of Marius, Quintus Sertorius, an independent government in 77 av. J organizes. - C. Starting from 74 av. J. - C., Rome must face a revolt of slaves directed by the Gladiateur thrace Spartacus. Consular armies are crushed several times by revolted. Mithridate VI Eupator takes again the war against Rome. Finally the pirates obstruct the commercial relations between the provinces and the capital.

To face all its difficulties the Sénat names Pompée with the head of an army which beats Sertorius. During this time Crassus succeeds in blocking Spartacus and its men on the peninsula of Rhegium and puts an end to the revolt. The revolted slaves are punished hard. They are crucifiés along the Via Appia connecting Rome to Capoue. Forts of their success, Pumped and Crassus aspire to the Consul At which they jointly obtain in 70 av. J. - C. Pompée, provided with the full powerss, reduced the pirates and restores the safety of navigation in the Mediterranean. It then leaves in the East to fight against Mithridate VI. It multiplies there the victories until the death of this last. Then it makes the conquest of the Close East in 64 and 63 av. J. - C.. It returns then to Rome very haloed of glory and taking along with him a rich person spoils. It is combined then with Crassus and Jules César in full political ascendance. The three men share the capacity and form the First triumvirate.

Jules César obtains the Consul At for 59 av. J. - C., it is expected that Pompée and Crassus succeeds to him like Consul S in 58 av. J. - C.. César obtains at the end of its magistrature to be named governor of the Gaulle Cisalpine, the Narbonnaise and the Illyrie. It obtains also the command of three legions, then of four when it obtains the government of the transalpine Gaulle.

Of 58 with 51 av. J. - C., it makes the conquest of the independent Gaulle, thus attracting itself prestige and richness. After the defeat of Vercingétorix to Alésia, César uses of repression and leniency to pacify the Gaulle. He grants the Roman Citoyenneté the chiefs of tribes ready to serve it. He employs the Gallic ones rejoined like auxiliary Troupes. He can then devote himself to his supreme ambition, the conquest of the capacity in Rome. He knows that he can count on the honesty of his legions and political supports for Rome.

During this time, Crassus finds death against the Parthes with Carrhes in 53 av. J. - C. Pompée benefits then from the absence of Jules César to be named single Consul by the Sénat in 52 av. J. - C. and to put an end to the ceaseless political agitation which shakes the city. End 50, beginning 49 av. J. - C. the Roman nobility entrusts to Pompée the mission of protecting Italy. It has for that of legions and the support the Senate. César which has the support of the Plèbe starts the civil war then by crossing the Rubicon with its army in 49 av. J. - C. It goes then on Rome, and Pompée flees. Strong César of troops aguerries by 9 years of combat as a Gaulle makes the conquest of Italy then beats an army of Pompée in Hispanie. César joined Pumped with Pharsale in the North of the Greece where it beats in 48 av. J. - C. with twice less soldiers. Pompée flees then in Egypt but he is assassinated by the young sovereign Lagide concerned to attract itself the good graces of the new strong man of Rome. The last partisans of Pompée are beaten in Africa in 46 av. J. - C. César keeps under control only Rome after 4 years of war.

It organizes a Monarchie which does not dare to say its name. It is named by the Sénat dictator for 10 years then dictator with life in 44 av. J. - C. It is " élu" Consul every year. He is also Censeur and carries the title Imperator , supreme leader of the armies. He holds also inviolability tribunician. He reorganizes the Sénat by opening it with nonRoman, Italian or even Gallic families. To be combined the support of the people, it practices a policy favorable to the poor: handing-over of the debts, allotment of the veterans, great work to embellish Rome. He dies assassinated in the Ides of march 44 av. J. - C. by a plot directed by Brutus and Cassius.

The second triumvirate and the seizure of power by Auguste

With died of Jules César, its small adoptive nephew and wire, Octave, its lieutenant, Marc Antoine and the proconsul of the Narbonnese , Lépide is intended to share the capacity. They form the Second triumvirate. Their primary goal is to avenge death for their mentor. Cassius and Brutus is killed in 42 av. J. - C. at the time of the Bataille of Philips in Macedonia. Then the three men share the Roman world: with the Pontifex maximus Lépide Africa, with Octave Occident and Marc Antoine the East. This last goes in Egypt where he marries the queen Cléopatre, former mistress of Jules César. During this time in Rome, Octave makes sure of the support of the Roman Sénat.

After the dismissal of Lépide as triumvir by Octave, the two men find themselves face to face. The conflict is inevitable. In 31 av. J. - C., Octave takes care to make lend an oath of fidelity to all the Roman Citoyens of Italy and to the vassal states. It is made elect Consul and declares the war with the Egypt of Cléopâtre. Marc Antoine combined with Cléopâtre is beaten with Actium in 31 av. J. - C. Octave then continues methodically the conquest of the East, until August 30 av. J. - C., when Marc Antoine and Cléopâtre commits suicide. Octave keeps under control only Rome. Moreover, the public opinion is tired of the disorders and of the civil wars, she claims a stable mode, was he authoritative. Of return in the city, Octave inaugurates one new era which will not finish that with the falls of Rome at the 5th century.

High-Empire

Octave remains the only Master of the empire after his victory with Actium into -31. He refuses the title of king. According to a well prepared scenario, it makes even mine abdicate into -27. The Senate confers then to him the title of Auguste, happy. While leaving the unfolding of old the magistratures and the Senate, it concentrates all the capacities between its hands. Its successors the emperors Julio-Claudiens, the Flaviens and the Antonins lead the Roman Empire to its apogee. At the 2nd century, the surface of the Roman Empire is with its maximum, and counts between 50 and 80 million inhabitants. Rome is with a million inhabitants more the big city of the Mediterranean world.

Of Auguste at the end of the Antonins

With died of Auguste, it is Tibère (14-37), wire of a first marriage of Livie, the wife of the emperor who reigns on Rome. Until 68, date of the suicide of Néron (54-68), all the emperors, Caligula (37-41), Claude Ier (41-54) belong to the dynasty of the Julio-Claudiens. With died of Néron, the empire undergoes a first crisis. Generals, Bent, Othon and Vitellius is in turn named emperors by their troops then assassinated in 69. It is finally the chief of the Army of the East, Vespasien (70-79), an Italian, who becomes emperor thus giving rise to the dynasty of the Flaviens. Its two sons, Titus (79-81) and Domitien (81-96) succeed to him in turn. This last is assassinated into 96 by a conspiracy of palate. The senate had already envisaged a substitute in the person of Nerva (96-98) which gives rise to the dynasty of the Antonins. It adopts its successor Trajan (98-117), a Roman of Hispanie. Five remarkable emperors out of six choose, of their alive their successor because they do not have wire, however the choice is always made on close relatives. The reigns of Trajan and its successor Hadrian (117-138) correspond to the apogee of the Roman Empire. Trajan, while attempting to support agriculture and to develop the administration, makes the conquest of the Dacie, the Parthian Empire and appendix the Arabia. The conquest of the Parthie does not survive to him. The emperor Hadrian endeavors to follow a more defensive policy. Under its reign, in several areas borders, in Africa and Brittany in particular, of the important fortifications develop, often called files . In addition Hadrian harnesses himself to improve operation of the empire. In the continuity of an effort started with other emperors, it attempts to support the integration of provincial, in particular by the creation of honorary colonies: whereas the colony term generally indicated the installation of Roman colonists, it is from now on an honorary title conceded in a city and which gives the Roman citizenship to all its inhabitants. Under the reign of Antonin the Piles (138-161), is introduced, in the right, a new distinction, between Honestiores and Humiliores, which opposes richest to the poor, the latter being sanctioned hard for the same fault. Marc-Aurèle (161-180) is known to be a stoical emperor-philosopher. He spends 15 years on the face of the Danube to fight against the barbarians. The empire enters indeed during a time much less favourable: its neighbors at the borders seem more powerful, the empire must deal with agrarian difficulties, famines, with the epidemic of the Peste antonine. Marc Aurèle chooses his son, Commode (180-192) like successor. The assassination of this one puts an end to the dynasty Antonins.

Between the reign of Auguste and that of Convenient the empire deeply changed, especially in Occident. The provinces were romanisées considerably: many provincial received the Roman citizenship, the Roman lifestyle and its distinctive signs were diffused: the use of Latin, Roman town planning, thermal baths as many cultural features divided, especially by the local aristocracies at the beginning, of Africa to the Calédonie. This progressive integration of provincial changed the composition of the leading layer of the empire: in the decade 160 only half of the senators are still originating in Italy, the others come from the East, de Gaulle, of Hispanie, Africa… But these senatorial big families, and that is also worth for the top of the equestrian order, are fully Roman whatever their origin, of multiple marriages and alliance relativizing very quickly these origins. For its leaders, the empire became a common inheritance which one manages in the name of the emperor, and if the attachment with its fatherland of origin is always respected, sign of the promptness of the ideal of the city, it is the romanity which founds a common political space. For the more modest populations the change is him also very deep, even if it is more difficult to see: the use of the Latin was spread until in the humblest populations, even if the local languages often persist, and the lifestyle with the Roman was also adopted considerably. With the stabilization of the borders, the Roman army was organized around large camps and of great areas borders where the recruitment of the soldiers was gradually regionalized, without losing for as much in quality.

Imperial capacity

The emperors carry the title of Imperator , supreme leader of the armies. Throughout all Roman Empire, the victory is a powerful factor of strengthening of the capacity. The overcome emperor easily sees himself disputing the capacity by another ambitious general. All the emperors take the practice to be made elect Consul to show continuity between the republican institutions and the Principat. That confers also the Imperium , the capacity to them to force and be obeyed of all. They have also the imperium proconsulaire what gives them the capacity to control all the provinces. As a holder of the power tribunitienne, they have the intercessio , i.e. the right to be opposed to any decision magistrates empire. Like Jules César, they carry the title of large pontiff who makes them them chiefs of the Roman religion. They receive an oath of personal fidelity of all the inhabitants of the Empire.

The imperial rules of succession are badly defined. Sometimes, the emperors adopt the person intended to succeed to them. Sometimes, the succession is hereditary. In the event of crisis, a general carried triumphs over it by his soldiers can by the weapons reach the supreme capacity. The Praetorian Guard charged to take care of the safety of the emperors plays a part growing in the plots and the assassinations which mark out the imperial period.

The imperial Worship

The function of large pontiff gets to the emperors a crowned character. Moreover in the popular beliefs, Scipion the African, Marius and Sylla were divine. César developed around him a legend of divinity claiming to go down from Venus and Enée. The emperor Auguste sets up the imperial Culte. He makes diviniser César and thus, as a its heir, he rises thus above humanity. He says son of Apollon. He associates also all the family community with the worship of the genius becoming thus the father of all, from where his title of father of the fatherland. Auguste refuses to be divinized of alive sound. It however lets build temples which are devoted to him especially in the East accustomed to regard its sovereigns as alive gods, provided that its name is associated with that of divinized Rome. The movement continues after its death. All the emperors places themselves under the auspice of a god. Little by little, they are compared to alive gods in all the Empire. After death they receive the Apothéose.

The imperial worship is also a manner of accustoming the inhabitants of the Empire, if dissimilar by the culture and the beliefs to respect the capacity of Rome through a divinized emperor. In all the Empire, one restores or one builds temples devoted to the imperial worship. Ceremonies are organized in the honor of the emperor. It is the occasion for the community to find itself in processions in front of sacrifices, banquets and all kinds of spectacles.

The Roman peace

Imperial administration

The military organization

Until the middle of 2nd century, the army remains an army of conquest. Auguste appendix the Illyrie and vainly tries to conquer the Germanie. It fixes the borders of the Empire at the the Rhine and the the Danube. Claude makes the conquest of the Brittany, Trajan, that of the Dacie, the Arabia. It makes the transitory conquest of the Parthie. Starting from the Hadrian, most important is to maintain the Empire and to conquer new territories either. One of the priorities of Hadrian is to enclose Roman space behind a wall intended to protect the Empire from the barbarians. One owes him the famous Hadrian's Wall in the north of the Brittany. These successors continue his work. At the borders of Germanic, the East and of Africa of the walls are set up. One ended up their giving the name of Limes although in Latin, files means simply way of patrol at the border. strategic ways make it possible to circulate easily to the borders to defend them in the event of attack. In all, the Romans have 9 000 km of border to be defended. The army remains confined at the borders. The governors of the frontier provinces which accommodate legions are selected carefully by the emperor because they ensure the command of it. In all, 400.000 men left again into 30 legions defend the borders.

The Roman army includes/understands about 150.000 legionaries of citizenship Roman and engaged for 20 years. They are doubled by auxiliary Troupes recruited among the not-citizens and who receive the Roman citizenship at the end of 25 years of military service. Starting from Hadrian, part of the auxiliaries are distinguished from the Roman army because they keep their traditional armament. The Italians feel reluctant to make their military service. It is thus necessary to go to seek the recruits in the provinces which, when they are very romanisées, also balk they to leave to the army. The soldiers thus recruit themselves more and more in the romanisées provinces. The Roman army thus became a professional army which amalgamated the various people of the Empire. Its unit comes from a team spirit given by a rigorous drive, an iron discipline raised with the row of divinity, a specific religion of the camps around the traditional Roman gods and of the imperial Culte, a framing of quality. One owes with the military bodies of engineers the construction of channels, of roads, aqueducts, and fortification of cities. The presence of the army at the borders is a great factor of economic development for these zones and a powerful instrument of romanisation.

The Roman Company under the Empire

The 80 million inhabitants of the Empire belongs by birth or fortune to different social groups. One is born slave, free man or Roman citizen. The slaves do not have any right. They carry out a very hard life in the great fields or the mines. Downtown their fate is more lenient. They work as servants, craftsmen and even professors or artists for more the well-read men. Some hold shop and pay a sum with their Master to be able to work. They can thus pay their stamping. The subjects of the empire are free men who are not Roman citizens. They can testify in justice but must pay the tributum , a direct tax. One is Roman citizen by birth, decree or after 25 years of military service. The citizens do not pay the tributum . The majority of the citizens exert small trades. In Rome, there exist 200.000 poor citizens for whom free distributions of the annone are vital. Richest are gathered in the equestrian order or the senatorial Ordre on decision of the emperor. In this company of orders: senatorial order, equestrian order or order décurional, the Nobilitas are characterized a recognition from the origin and not by a statute. However, the nobilitas loses some of its social markers. At the 2nd century the procession of the portraits disappears. It from now on is indeed reserved for the only imperial funeral.

At the beginning of the empire, the company is not fixed. The slaves, especially urban, can be easily freed by their Master. Little by little all the free men reach the citizenship. The edict of Caracalla, in 212, made of all the free men of the Roman citizens. That reinforces the moral unit of the Empire. From the citizenship the " are however excluded; déditices ", i.e. Barbarians subjected by the force and the part of the Egyptian population having a lower statute. Thus with Volubilis, the isolated peasants and the seminomad tribes close to the city remain subjects of the Empire, except some chiefs rewarded thus for their support. But little by little, the distinctions are done between the Honestiores , the powerful ones, and the Humiliores , the humble ones. They are treated in an unequal way in front of justice: the legal distinction between citizen and not-citizen a social distinction between rich person and the poor replaced.

The city, place of Roman civilization

Economic prosperity

In general, the majority of the produced richnesses come from the campaigns and the agriculture. Under the High-Empire, the tendency to land concentration is confirmed. The nobilitas or the temples of the East has vast domains. But the great landowner of the empire, it is the emperor himself which increases its goods by confiscating those of its opponents. The center of the great field or Latifundium is the villa, the residence of the Master with his dependences. If the posted ideal is that of autarky, because it is the real estate and the self-sufficiency which founds social dignity, there exist important areas of commercial cultures. The principal culture is that of the cereals which makes it possible to nourish all the inhabitants of the field. The Roman agronomists advise to reserve part of the surface to commercial cultures like the vine and the olive-tree. The small property did not disappear for as much. It remains the ideal of the Roman company but its importance was reduced. So under the Empire, the agriculture evolved/moved little technically it diffused some practical. The existence of productivity gains is not excluded by certain authors.

The artisanal main activities are carried out in the campaigns, but also in the cities: textile production, manufacture and maintenance of the tools, production of pottery. During very a long time the historians conceived the ancient cities like only consuming, after important discussions this opinion is relativized considerably. Important mine fields existed in Spain and in the Danubian areas. But there too, the technological advances are tiny. Manual work, the mercantile activity, are, for the educated classes, a source of contempt, a thing reserved for the lower classes and to the slaves. The existence of slaves perhaps also constituted an obstacle with the development of the technological advancement. However recent archaeological research also strongly relativizes the old judgments related to certain fields: the archeologists and historians agree for example today on the important and early diffusion of the water mill in the Roman empire.

The peace and the prosperity of the High-Empire involve an increase in marketing activities. The Mediterranean in the middle of the Roman Empire knows an intense traffic. Piracy is very reduced thanks to the fleets of war of the emperors who patrol permanently. The ships are ventured more and more in open sea to shorten the duration of the crossings. But for the ways costs or means, the sailors prefer the coastal traffic along the coasts. The the Mediterranean is open from March to October, i.e. navigation is authorized there. In winter, there is no navigation. The large Mediterranean ports are Ostie, the wearing of Rome, Alexandria in Egypt and Carthage in Africa. The commercial links reach also the Baltique, the Black Africa via the Trans-Saharan caravans, the India and the China. It is thus seen that the empire is not a closed space. The taste for the luxury items of the Romans feeds the great international business. In this direction the Empire prolongs the last two centuries of the republic, but the Italian economic domination in certain fields - ceramic of qualities, amphoras, wines - yield the place, with time, with the provincial productions.

Severe

The Convenient assassination of , the last of the Antonins in December 192 opens a political crisis as at the end of the dynasty of the Julio-Claudiens. The Praetorian Garde assassinates the new emperor Pertinax and carries to the capacity Didius Julianus. It is finally the general of the the Danube, the African Septime Sévère (193-211) who seizes the power into 193. It fills benefits the army of which it increases manpower and reinforces the imperial capacity. The Praetorian ones which made and demolished so many emperors are recruited among the legions of the the Danube faithful to Septime Sévère. Cultural mixing that the empire brings increases, the religions come from the East become more popular in the Empire, in particular the worship of Mithra among the soldiers. This aspect was sometimes exaggerated by the historians who described the Severe ones like an Eastern dynasty, considerably today relativized judgment. It names its two sons Auguste but with its death, Caracalla (211-217) hastens to kill his/her young brother Geta. It is known to have published into 212, celebrates it edict which bears its name. He dies assassinated on the Parthian face on order of the Préfet of the court Macrin (217-218) which succeeds in taking its place only little time. The cousin of Caracalla, Élagabal (218-222) becomes then emperor but all occupied with the worship of the god of the same name it leaves the government to his/her grandmother, Julia Maesa. It is killed by the Praetorian ones and his/her cousin Sévère Alexandre (222-235) succeeds to him. After its assassination, the dark Empire during one time more disturbed much, traditionally qualified military Anarchy, however unsuitable term because if the imperial capacity were sometimes divided, it was never absent.

The crisis of the Roman Empire (235-284)

Origins of the crisis

The historians still wonder about the reasons of the deep crisis which passes through the Roman empire at the third century. Certain causes external with the Empire can explain it. In the East, the Parthian Empire déliquescent leaves the place to the Empire Sassanide in the second quarter of the 3rd century. This powerful empire, structured well and aggressive makes weigh a constant pressure on the provinces of Asia. In the North-East of Europe, the German Eastern ones which lives in the areas of the Baltic start a slow migration towards the South and European South-east. By doing this, they drive out the other tribes which are on the territories that they cross. There those seek to find refuge in the Roman Empire while hoping to find new grounds and a rich person spoils. Their incursions update the weakness of the Roman defensive strategy. Indeed, the legions are massed at the borders. Once crossed the area border, the barbarians can devastate without almost any obstacle the provinces. The Roman military device, and the organization of the imperial capacity also are adapted very little to a simultaneous war on two faces, in the East and on the Rhine-Danube unit.

The internal difficulties are due to the increasingly large distance of the soldiers ready to impose heavy sacrifices to the civilians to protect the empire from the threats of invasions and having class which accepts with difficulty the increase in its fiscal charges. On the political plan, that results in the rise of the order equestrian, titular of the large prefectures and increasingly present in the provinces as governor at the place of the senatorial class. Moreover from 250, the Roman Empire is touched by epidemics which involve, at least on a regional level, a depopulation and an economic crisis from which suffer mainly the Occident already devastated by the Germanic incursions.

The most recent state of research however relativizes the general and continuous character of the crisis. The third century from now on rather is described as marked by some great better definite crises from the point of view chronological: political crisis in 238, two serious attacks during years 250 and 260, the hardest time for the imperial capacity. But the stress from now on is as laid on the diversity of the regional situations, the maintenance of a prosperity in Africa, on the existence of period of rectification or on the capacities of raising and resistance, inducing more one period of change as a continuous crisis and a decline.

Imperial instability

The period ranging between 235 and 268 is rather badly known. Sixteen emperors followed one another, made and demolished by the fate of the weapons. Thus Maximin Ier Thrace is the first military career with becoming emperor by the will alone of its soldiers. He deploys a great energy to make safe the border vis-a-vis the Daces and with the Sarmates. It requires senatorial class and provinces of heavy taxes to face the military expenditure. This tax pressure causes the revolt of the great landowners of Africa who carry to the capacity Gordien Ier in partnership with his/her son Gordien II into 238. They are quickly beaten. Maximin is killed in front of Aquilée just as Pupien and Balbin, chosen by the senate like new Majestic. At the end of 238, Gordien III (238-244) the grandson of Gordien Ier becomes emperor. He perishes assassinated at the instigation of the prefect of the court, Philippe the Arab (244-249) who must eliminate several competitors before being killed by facing Dèce (249-251). Dèce is the first emperor killed by barbarians, at the time of the heavy defeat of Abrittus vis-a-vis the Goths into 251. Trébonien Galle (251-253), Émilien (253) follow one another at brought closer intervals. This last reigns only eighty eight days. The imperial legitimacy which rested on the victory is subjected to severely tested: the military crisis encourages the usurpations: threatened armies seeking an effective general and areas wishing a close emperor to protect them.

Valérien (253-260) reign associated with his/her son Gallien (253-268). This one is the last aristocrat to be arrived at the Empire. They must face the incursions of the Alamans and the Francs in Gaulle and with the offensive of the sovereign sassanide Sapor in Syria. In 260, Valérien is even made prisoner by Persians and finishes its days like slave in Iran. Gallien remained only emperor manages to stop an invasion of Alamans by beating them in Italy of North. It gives up the Dacie conquered by Trajan which became too difficult to defend and fixes the border of the Empire on the the Danube. But it must face many usurpations, that of Macrien and Quiétus in the East, Kingly in Pannonia and Postume as a Gaulle who proclaims the Empire of Gaules.

Successors of Gallien: Claude II the Gothic (268-270), Quintillus (270), Aurélien (270-275), Tacit Marcus Claudius (275-276), Florien (276), Probus (276-282), Carus (282-283), Carin (Occident) (283-285) and Numérien (the East) (283-284), are all of origin illyrienne. they all are of the soldiers to whom armed it gave a great rigor and the faith in the eternity of the Roman Empire. The empire became soldier. Starting from reforms started under Gallien - exclusion of the senators of the military command - the emperors illyriens face the crisis and reorganize the defense of the empire. Aurélien reunifies the empire by putting a term at the secessions palmyrénienne and Gallic and strengthens Rome.

Transformations after 260

Gallien starts a major change of the military strategy. It distributes in-depth the means of defense while placing in the principal road junctions of the Illyrie of the detachments of the frontier legions. It constitutes an important cavalry with an autonomous command. It excludes the senators from military employment and replace them by knights. It inserts in the army of the overcome barbarians amorçant the barbarisation of the army consequently. The army absorbs a part increasingly larger financial resources of the state. A special tax, the military annone is taken for its maintenance.

The functions of general-in-chief and victorious war leader that the emperor holds traditionally are reinforced during these ceaseless periods of war. Beside the usual qualifiers like Felix , one associates more and more the term invictus . Indeed, a victorious emperor can hope for the fidelity of his subjects and his troops. In the event of military defeat, competitors appear among the other generals. The emperors however try to find a legitimacy by transforming the imperial Culte. Aurélien is divinisé of alive sound. On his currencies, one can find the inscription deus and dominus natus .

The difficulties of 3rd century give rise to think of the Romans whom they were given up by the gods and it follows one period from there or the citizens refusing to take part in the worships public, like the Christian and the Jews are persecuted. Dèce, from 250 then Valérien renews the obligation of sacrifices what involving persecutions towards refractories. In 260, his/her son Gallien publishes an edict of tolerance maintained by his successors during 40 years.

The opposition between the Nobilitas and the new man is more long-lived than ever. The Empire passes between the hands of families not having never exerted the imperial function. The emperors novi leave with their family the nobility in heritage. The Honestiores of the provinces of Occident and the leaders of the close cruel people, acquire them also the Nobilitas which incorporates them in the highest layers. With regard to the Roman nobility, it keeps an immense social prestige but loses almost all its political authority.

The late Antiquity

Emperors of Bottom Empire (284-395)

A few months after its come to power, Dioclétien, (284-305) understand that it cannot direct only the Empire and entrusts to Maximien the responsibility to deal with the Occident as a César then of Auguste. In 293, it gives to Maximien an assistant who carries the title of César, Constance Chlorinates and itself of it one chooses, Galère. Thus the needs for the Empire give by chance birth to the Tétrarchie, i.e. the capacity with four. There is no territorial division of the Roman Empire but, the four men are distributed the command of the troops and the sectors in which they intervene. Dioclétien remains however at the top. This new organization makes it possible to eliminate the usurpers who sowed the disorder as a Gaulle, to push back the barbarians. The victory over the Sassanides makes it possible to reinforce the Roman presence in Mésopotamie with the constitution of five new provinces. The interior policy of Dioclétien is in line of the emperors of the 3rd century. It reinforces the deification of the imperial function. It starts the most violent last and of persecutions against the Christians.

In 305, both Auguste S abdicate the same day to leave the place to their César S, Galère and Constance Chlorinates, which becomes in their turn Auguste S. Dioclétien chooses two new César S, Maximin II Daïa and Sévère, deliberately drawing aside from the succession wire of Maximien and Constance Chlorinates. Dioclétien is withdrawn then with Spalato.

The second Tétrarchie run up against the ambitions of Maxence and Constantin, wire respective of Maximien and Constance Chlorinates. One period of instability follows with up to seven majestic S at the same time. In 313, two emperors remain in string, Constantin 1st, installed with Nicomédie, and Licinius. This last is overcome first once into 316 then definitively eliminated into 324. Constantin, first emperor to be itself converted with Christianity, remains the only sovereign then. This same year, it chooses the old Greek colony of Byzance, installed on European bank of the strait of the the Bosphorus to found a new capital which will bear its name, Constantinople. Built on the model of Rome, it is inaugurated into 330. When Constantin dies into 337, it did not regulate its succession. Its three sons share the Empire but end up disputing. Finally the Empire is joined together under the authority of the second wire of Constantin 1st, Constance II which names two césars with the very reduced capacities. The new emperor continues the policy of his father. One of the césars, Julien, in load of Gaulle, gains a great victory over Alamans into 357. Its soldiers proclaim it emperor with his defending body with Lutèce. Constance II dies the following year. Julien, cousin of the late emperor gives up Christianity by love of the Greek thought, from where its nickname of Apostat . He tries to restore the old religions by reopening the temples and by obtaining many Apostasie S. He dies after 18 months of reign, into 363, in a skirmish with the return of a campaign against Persians. Its successors, Jovien (363-364), Valentinien I {{er}} in Occident (364-375) and Valens in the East (364-378) return to an absolute religious neutrality. The emperor of the East Valens, brother of Valentinien Ier must manage the difficulties generated by the presence beyond the the Danube of the Goths. Valentinien Ier leaves its capacity to his/her two young children Gratien and Valentinien II. After the death of Valens at the time of the Battle of Turkey-red cotton in 378, Gratien chooses a new colleague for the East, Théodose the Young person. Gratien is assassinated into 383. Valentinien II, the young brother of Gratien, remains only majestic then of the Occident with at its sides frank general, Arbogast which assassinates it into 392. In 394, Théodose beats the usurper with the Bataille of the Cold River where the two armies lose the essence of their forces. Whereas the barbarian danger is increasingly pressing, defenses of the empire are weakened by interminable civil wars.

In 395, Théodose Large the dies, after having shared the Empire between its two sons. Arcadius the elder one receives the East and Honorius the Occident. This division is in the continuity of the preceding reigns. The division wants to be purely administrative. The unit of the empire must thus be preserved. But the Occident of Honorius is weakened by years of civil wars and against the barbarians. It lost most of its troops. The economy of the Occident remains fragile whereas that of the East is flourishing. The two parts of the Empire separate definitively.

Instruments of the capacity

The crisis of the {{S|III|E}} transformed the imperial capacity which became absolute. The Senate does not have any more any influence. One passed from Principat to the Dominat. The emperors of late Antiquity also profit from an ideological construction which little by little compared the emperors to alive divinities and thus justify their absolute capacity. For Constantin as for Dioclétien, the imperial authority is of divine nature. Dioclétien and Galère, his/her adoptive son, is claimed downward of Jupiter. They take the nickname of Jovien , his/her Maximien colleague like his Co-césar that of Herculien . The purpose of this sacralization of the imperial capacity is also to remove any legitimacy with the possible usurpers since only the emperor is elected gods, and that only its successor is legitimate. In 312, Constantin chooses the Christianisme because it gives him a new legitimacy and above all the others.

Constantin does not seek to affirm a divine filiation. He rather claims to be invested by God of the Christians to control the Empire. The currency of the time shows a hand leaving the sky and a crown tends to him. The emperor acts like a Clerc in his manner of exerting the power. With Constantinople, it builds its palate as if it were a church; he affirms to have received a vision of the Christ as if he were a Apôtre; it acts as a bishop at the time of the council of Nicée convened by itself but it is not it. Constantin affirms that he is the representative of God on the ground. In its intelligence is reflected the supreme intelligence. It surrounds by an incredible ostentation for exalter the size of the imperial function. From now on the romanity and the Christian religion are dependant. Eusèbe de Césarée, taking again the theses of Méliton de Sardes, works out, at that time, the Théologie of the Christian empire. For him, the political unification allowed the religious unification. The emperor is within this framework, the servant of God and like the son of God image, Master of the universe. The emperor receives also the mission of guide towards safety and the Christian faith. Its intervention growing in the religious questions is thus legitimated as well as the Césaropapisme.

The army of late Antiquity

The number of soldiers per legion did nothing but decrease since the reform of Marius at the end of the II E. It passed from 6000 to 5000 pennies the Early empire and is certainly around 2000 at the beginning of the reign of Dioclétien. Dioclétien increases the number of soldiers. He entrusts to soldiers often of barbarian origin, the Limitanei , the care to defend the Limes . The legions of operation are of more reduced size - 1000 legionaries - but are more numerous than under the previous period. They pass from 39 to 60. They are charged to intercept the Barbarians who succeeded in crossing an increasingly strengthened border. The need for the defense of the empire justifies the abandonment of Rome like imperial residence with the profit of cities closer to the borders: Trier, Milan, Sirmium, Nicomédie. Constantin completes the transformation of the army and sets up the comitatus , the army of countryside. Its command is entrusted to a magister peditum for the infantry and a magister equitum for the cavalry. Where necessary, of the Masters of the militia can be created for a particular area as in Illyricum. In the exposed provinces and dioceses, the troops can be directed by a comes or a Dux . This army is particularly neat by the emperors. It is supposed that the Roman army of the 4th century counts between 250.000 and 300.000 men. To mitigate the difficulties of recruitment, Dioclétien forces new rules. The owners must from now on provide recruits to the Roman army. During the 4th century, they obtain the right to replace the recruits by a gold sum, the aurum tironicum . This system is removed into 375, but only for the East. A significant number citizens seeks to flee enrôlement in the army while leaving in the desert, while cutting the inch or while becoming Clerc. The heavy judgments towards the deserters, the heredity of the trade of soldier do not avoid the difficulties of recruitment, which pushes the emperors to call upon the barbarians.

Dioclétien and Constantin {{Ier}} recruit auxiliaries of barbarian origin to take care on the files . The latter have to see little with the Roman spirit. The distinction between Comitatus and Limitanei gives rise to the Roman army of the Lower Empire. Under Théodose, the army barbarise more. The Roman Empire of the East keeps the same provisions of 2nd at the 7th century. The main new thing is the replacement of the system of conscription, if unjust, by that of voluntariate. To attract the recruits, they receive tax exemptions on their grounds. The army then does not miss any more soldiers.

At the beginning of the 5th century, the army of Occident includes/understands 200.000 men at the borders theoretically, of the Limitanei almost all of barbarian origin, and 50.000 men in the army of operation, the Comitatus. The paradox of this army is that the borders are defended by soldiers resulting people which seek to invade the Empire.

Administration of late Antiquity

Under Dioclétien, the senatorial interprovincial distinctions and imperial provinces are removed. Into 297, it divides them into smaller entities, making them pass from 47 to more than 100. These new provinces are gathered in 12 diocese S directed by equestrian Vicaire S which obey directly the emperors. This multiplication of the administrative units and the administrative levels is perceived as being more effective to fight against the evils of the Empire. In 312, one counts 108 provinces, 116 into 425. Constantin divides the Empire into large districts whose limits are fluctuating, the regional prefectures with at their head a prefect of the court. The prefects have great civil and legal prerogatives there. Each administrative level - regional prefecture, diocese, province - has its capital, its offices, its civils servant. The imperial capacity is thus more present at each level, but the wage bill of the civils servant is multiplied by four and the great capacities which they have are factors of autonomy and corruption.

The organization of the central capacity is it also transformed. The Préfet of the court is replaced by the questeur of the crowned Palate which writes the edicts. This last directs the crowned consistory, which replaces the council of the emperor. The Master of the offices directs administrative staff, the arms factories and the scholæ of the guard; the Master of the militia, the infantry and cavalry; the count of crowned generosities, tax department; the count of private fortune, LMBO privata , i.e. the private case of the emperor, personal incomes of this last being resulting primarily from the income of its immense fields. The great innovation is however the great increase in the civils servant working in the central offices. A crowd of notaries, secret agents (the agentes in rebus ), nearly 1.000 civils servant at the 5th century, and to various employees make Roman Empire a true bureaucracy. This plethoric central administration contributes to the insulation of the emperor compared to the remainder of the company.

Finances before are very intended to support the army. The military annone was gradually installation starting from the dynasty of the Sévères. It, under Dioclétien, is paid in kind or in cash. To face the increased expenditure, the emperor orders that is listed, all the resources of the Empire, men, cattle and other richnesses. This census, which takes place every fifteen years, is used as a basis to establish, a new tax, the Capitation. The taxation weighs primarily on the inhabitants of the campaigns. In addition to capitation, they must pay the jugatio on the land goods. The senators must discharge collatio glebalis every four years. Under the reign of Théodose, the taxation still hardens causing revolts (Antioche in 387). In theory, the incomes of LMBO privata must provide for the court and the imperial family, but a growing share of this case is reserved for the immense needs for the State.

The Christianity in the Roman world

For a long time the idea prevailed that at the beginning of the 4th century, the provinces of the East are mainly acquired with Christianity. In Occident, the Mediterranean provinces are touched by the new religion than the others. But everywhere in this part of the Roman Empire, the campaigns remain deeply polytheists. Today the extent of the christianization of the Empire is called in question. It seems that in 312, the Christians account for only 4 to 5% of the total population of the Empire.

Constantin is converted with the Christianisme at the time of its countryside against Maxence into 312. In 313, the edict of Milan proclaims freedom of worship and envisages to return to the Christians the goods which had been confiscated to them during large the Persécution of Dioclétien. This conversion poses the problem of the relations between the Church and the capacity. Surrounded bishops, Constantin intervenes in the doctrinal arguments of the Church. One of its objectives is to restore civil peace in the Empire. He fights against the Donatisme in Africa and the Arianisme in the East. He chairs even the council of Nicée into 325 which recognizes the Christ like God and man unanimously, even Arius agreeing to these doctrines. But it continues its preaching and is excommunicated. The ariens adopt positions very favorable to the imperial capacity, recognizing the right to him to solve the religious questions of authority. Constantin ends up converting with this form of Christianity and is made baptize on its bed of dead by a Prêtre arien. This conversion with the arianism is disputed by the Catholic church and certain historians. His/her son, Constance II is a convinced arien. He does not hesitate to persecute the Christians nicéens more than the pagan ones. In spite of its interventions in many Council S, it fails to make adopt a creed which satisfies the ariens and the orthodoxe Christians. Its successors, concerned of civil peace observe a strict religious neutrality between the ariens and the nicéens. The defeat of Andrinople vis-a-vis the Visigoths ariens makes it possible to the orthodoxe catholics to pass to the offensive. Ambroise of Milan, wanting to defend the creed of Nicée against the ariens qualifies the Hérésie of double treason, towards the Church and the Empire. Gratien ends up being directed towards a judgment of the Arianisme under the combined influence of his/her colleague Théodose and Ambroise. The emperor of the leave orientalis has, into 380, in the edict of Thessalonique, makes Christianity a religion of State. Like his colleague, it promulgates laws anti-heretics. He convenes a council with Aquilée, into 381, directed by Ambroise. Two bishops ariens are excommunicated. The Catholic church became enough strong to resist the imperial court. After the death of Gratien, the party arien is again very influential at the court. At their instigation, a law, on January 23rd, 386 is promulgated, which envisages the capital punishment for any person who would oppose freedom consciences and worships. Ambroise refuses to extremely concede a basilica extra muros with the ariens of the support of the people and higher realms of Milan. The imperial court is obliged to yield. Thanks to men like Ambroise, the Church thus can émanciper of the imperial supervision, especially in Occident and to even assert the primacy of the spiritual power on the temporal one by recalling to the emperor his duties of Christian. The Christians need also the police force to make prevail their point of view. Thus Porphyre of Gaza obtains from the empress Eudoxie, whom it makes close by her husband Honorius the temples polytheists of Gaza.

The organization of the Church

The Church is organized while following the administrative model of the Empire. The Diocese where the bishop officiates, corresponds to the city, except in Africa and Egypt. This one is indicated by the members of the community and the bishops close. The christianized aristocracy often occupies the functions of bishop. Because of failure of the municipal elites, reducing of the too heavy and too expensive responsibilities, they become the first characters of the city with. In the East, they become thus partners of the imperial capacity. They take again for the Church a share of the evergetism décurional for the assistance with the poor and the patients. Where necessary, they set up as a defender of their city threatened vis-a-vis the barbarians. With Rome, they take the step on the urban prefects. In Egypt, on the other hand, the bishops are generally selected among the monks.

Above the bishops the metropolitan bishop is which sits in the chief town of the province and whose authority gets along with the whole of this one. Starting from council of Constantinople of 381, primacies appear which gather under their authority several provinces; in Occident, Rome and Carthage; in the East, Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioche. During the 4th century, the head office of Rome starts to establish its primacy on the whole of the Empire. In 370, Valentinien I {{er}} declares irrevocable the decisions of the Pape in Rome. The Pape Damase (366-384) is the first prelate to qualify his Diocèse of apostolic seat because it is the only one to be created by an apostle, Pierre, to be regarded as the chief of the apostles. But that should not make forget that during late Antiquity, the Church is not a homogeneous unit. Each city with its rites, its saints, his liturgical language, reflection of the diversity of the Empire. The emperors give to the members clergy of many privileges. They are exempted tax services imposed to the citizens. The bishop S are seen recognized capacities of civil jurisdiction. The people continued by the capacity profit from the right of asylum, which makes it possible to withdraw them from imperial justice. Finally the clerks do not depend on the ordinary jurisdictions and are thus placed at the top of the common right. Constantin gives to the Church a legal personality which enables him to receive gifts and legacies. This enables him to increase its material power. At the 5th century, it has immense fields of which some depend on the charitable institutions of the Church. The development of its institutions enables him to occupy a vacuum left by the pagan systems of redistributions, while being interested in the poor as such and not as citizens or that customers.

During late Antiquity, the monachism, born at the 3rd century makes first great strides. The first monks appear in Egypt, in the south of Alexandria, then while going up along the valley. It is them which are at the origin of the christianization of this Roman province. The radical withdrawal of the world that the first Ermite S preach, Antoine and Pacôme, is a true political and social rupture with Rome, for which it appears impossible to live out of the city. This does not prevent the eremitism then the Cénobitisme from developing in the deserts of the East. The monastery of saint Antoine in Egypt is regarded as oldest in the world. However it seems that the true founder of the cenobitic lifestyle is Pacôme. At the beginning of the 4th century, it establishes first a community with Tabennae, an island on the the Nile halfway between Cairo and Alexandria. It founds eight others Monastère S in the area during its life, adding up 3000 monks. The Western clerks who go in the East propagate on their return, the ideal monachist. The first religious establishments appear in the West of the Empire starting from the end of the 4th century: Martin saint with Marmoutier, Honorat with Lérins.

Permanence of paganism

During all the 4th century, the worships traditional polytheists continue to be practiced, just as the worships with mystery of Eastern origin like those of Mithra, of Cybèle, Isis and Sérapis in spite of progressive restrictions. The Christian texts which denounce them violently, the dedications, the ex voto, or of certificates of work in the temples are as many testimonys. In Egypt, Chenouté, abbot of the White in High-Egypt and died monastery towards 466, bring back in its works its fight against the pagan ones, which it calls “the Greeks”. The pagan historian Zosime learns to us on this subject that the new religion was not yet widespread in all the Roman Empire, the Paganisme being maintained long enough in the villages after his extinction in the cities.

Constantin hardly intervenes but to prohibit the night sacrifices, the practices of Sorcellerie and magic, the rites of Haruspice deprived, which concerns the superstitio . He always sought, even after 324, with sparing the pagan ones. He keeps all his life the title of large pontiff, which makes the chief of the traditional religion of it he in general expresses the greatest tolerance with respect to all the forms of paganism. Indeed, crushing it majority of the subjects of the emperor is still pagan. It must thus spare them. In 356, Constancy II interdict all the sacrifices, of night like day, makes close isolated temples and threatens of the capital punishment all those which practice the magic and the divination. The Julien emperor, asset with paganism, promulgate into 361 an edict of tolerance allowing to practice the worship of his choice. It requires that the Christians who had seized the treasures of the pagan worships restore them. Its successors all are Christian. In 379, Gratien gives up the load of Grand Pontiff. From 382, at the instigation of Ambroise, bishop of Milan, the furnace bridge of the Victoire, her symbol with the Senate, Curie is torn off, while the Vestale S and all priesthoods lose their immunities. February 24th, 391, a law of Théodose prohibited with any person to enter a temple, to adore the statues of the gods and to celebrate sacrifices, “under penalty of death”. In 392, Théodose prohibits the Olympic Games related to Zeus and Héra, but also because of the nudity of the body of the candidates, the worship of the body and nudity, being disparaged by Christianity. Little by little, the abandoned temples fall in ruins. Others are destroyed like the Sérapéum of Alexandria as of 391, the temple of Caelestis, the large Carthaginian goddess heiress of Tanit into 399. In addition, Christianity itself is impregnated old pagan rites. Certain Roman traditional festivals are always celebrated at the end of the 5th century, as the festival of Lupercales devoted to fruitfulness and in love one. For the éradiquer, the pope Gélase Ier decides into 495 to celebrate the festival of holy Valentine, on February 14th, one day before the festival of the Lupercales to celebrate in love ones. It is thus well about an attempt at christianization of a pagan rite. The Africans continue to celebrate banquets at the birthdays days of dead directly on the tombs. At the 6th century, Césaire of Arles denounces in its sermons with its faithful pagan practices which remain in the people. The wearing of amulets, the worships with the trees and the sources did not disappear from Gaulle Southerner. The complaints of the clerks are numerous until the end of late Antiquity.

Evolutions of the company and the economy during late Antiquity

Economy

The Roman economy is a primarily agricultural economy. The Mediterranean trilogy dominates the production: corn, vine (wine), olive-tree (oil). The Sicily, the Africa, the Egypt, the Gaules and the Spain produce the cereals which supply the big cities of the Empire. The breeding of horses, essential for the plays and the army is concentrated in Spain, in Africa, Syria, Thrace and Asia. At that time, two sectors of the economy can be qualified industrialists. It is of mining and the production of sigillée Céramique. This one is related to the exportation of products agricultural. It is thus in the great areas of production that the principal ceramics workshops are found. Forty arms factories are disseminated in the Empire. They belong to industries of the State, just like the factories of armours, clothing for the soldiers and dyeings.

Trade route is the same ones as since the beginning of the Roman Empire. Only the creation of Constantinople creates a new axis of transport. Roman Empire prohibited the exportation of products which could support the saving in enemy powers. The international business is not very important: slaves, incense of Yemen, spices of the Indian world, perfumes and silk trade of China. It especially benefits the cities located at the limits from the Empire: Antioche, Carthage in relation to the caravaneers of Africa. The domestic trade becomes again very active after the crisis of the 3rd century.

For a long time the historians presented the economy of late Antiquity like declining. However, of great technical innovations of Antiquity diffuse themselves for this period like the Gallic Moissonneuse or the Water mill. The artisanal techniques do not know retreat. What gave this impression of economic crisis, it is the given up ground increase, especially in Occident but also in the East. Recent excavations and a second reading of the old texts make it possible to believe that the phenomenon of the deserted grounds and the abandoned villages is, in the final analysis, less than it was believed. According to Pierre Jaillette, the regression, caused in particular by invasions, civil wars and raids of plunderers, is not also generalized, nor as continues as the historians thought it previously. At the 4th century, the large metropolises of the East as of Occident find their dynamism lost during the crisis of 3rd century. The big business of the luxury items is always very prosperous. The continental traffic seems him to be itself somewhat étiolé. Trier on the files , become imperial residence, knows a prosperity without precedent. However one can note that it is especially the monetary policy of Constantin Ier who digs the inequalities between the rich person and the poor. It maintains the course of the gold coins, the solidus , that only easiest can thésauriser but lets devaluate the copper currencies necessary to the daily exchanges what reduces the purchasing power of the popular masses. The creation of a third of solidus does not make it possible to fill the variations.

In 395, whereas the final division between the East and the Occident starts, the economy of the Occident remains fragile. Only some imperial workshops and some ceramics production centres still preserve a real dynamism. The trade is held by colonies of Jewish and Syrian merchants. The campaigns depend for their survival on the establishment on the Germanic populations, this particularly in north of Gaulle and in Illyricum . The economy of the East, on the other hand, is flourishing. It is the economic and commercial center Roman world. Agriculture is prosperous there.

The company

As from the 4th century the differences in the right between Honestiores and humiliores increase. The dominant classes widen and are structured. To the 4th century the prefectures of the city and court are added to the consulate like loads making it possible to enter the Nobilitas. In the first part of the 4th century, the Nobilitas knows an abrupt widening. Constantin Ier makes the decision to remove the equestrian Ordre whose members all enter almost the senatorial Ordre. The number of senators passes from 600 to 2000 members. The Senate created in Constantinople counts to him also 2.000 members. The Eastern senatorial order is recruited among notable Greek provincial cities. He knows a rapid growth under the reign of Constancy II. The higher layer of the Senate adopts then the name of clarissime to be distinguished from the mass of the nobility. The clarissimes are above all the land great landowners. They often show a refined culture and take part in the literary rebirth of the time. For a long time historians and archeologists believed, with the sight of the existence of large villas of Masters richly decorated in the campaigns, that the nobilitas had carried out on the 4th century a return to the ground. Recent research reveals that the majority of the clarissimes live most of the year downtown and go only to the occasion in their fields. Towards 370, in the legal vocabulary, the “nobilitas” merges with the senatorial statute. The importance of the bureaucracy is such as at the 4th century, the administrative career replaced the social army like means of promotion. The Roman Nobilitas is also characterized by its resistance to the adoption of Christianity. Attached to the worship of the ancestors, the culture gréco-Roman, philosophy, it spreads a many literature anti-Christian woman. However, in the middle of the 4th century, the Roman big families convert little by little with Christianity.

The Ordre décurional knows significant changes. The role and the statute of the curiales seem to be degraded. The crumbling of the incomes of the order does not allow any more décurions to face their obligations. The cities thus suffer from the decline of the evergetism deprived and that their own resources. Let us décurions become responsible on their own goods for the heavy taxes which the emperor requires and which they must collect. This obligation makes them particularly unpopular. The creation of a perceiving body of by Valentinien I {{er}} is not enough to relieve them of this difficult task. So the citizens flee the municipal magistratures. To recruit the new ones let us décurions, Constantin Ier changes the local established among. The residents of a city who have the means of them must become décurions. Moreover the load décurionale becomes hereditary. This does not prevent the financial position of the cities from continuing to degrade itself. Much of let us décurions seek to flee their heavy charges hereditary, either while becoming monk or priest, or while being made recruit in the administrations provincial, diocésaines or prefectoral, or while withdrawing itself in the rural fields. The threats of confiscation of their goods do not change large thing there.

The corporations know the same evolution. Under Constantin 1st, the State intervenes directly to impose the constraint and heredity. The naviculaires have the obligation to transport the military annone under penalty of serious penal sanction. Once their service for the ensured State, they have the right to be delivered to the transport of the goods for their own account. The obligation for a son to take again the trade of his/her father is also founded for the imperial workshops. Condemned and the vagrants are also recruited of force. This statute of forced employment brings closer the workmen to these workshops of the condition of slaves whereas they are in theory of the citizens.

The small property continues to regress at the 4th century. Indeed the small holders have more and more evil to meet the tax requirements of the Empire. The statute of colonist becomes current in the rural world. There too, the colonists do not have any more the right to leave their ground and the wire are obliged to take again the paternal exploitation. As for the corporations, this social opposition to progress is related to the concern of having sure tax re-entries. Little by little, the peasant becomes attached to his ground. Under Théodose 1st, when the Master sells the ground, it sells the colonist with. The condition of the farmers is near already to the medieval Servage. But there still, there exist notable differences between the oriental party and the Western part of the Empire. The East more populated undergoes less the colonat. A farming community the small ones and average owners is maintained a little everywhere and seems even majority in Syria. Christianity does not make disappear the Esclavage. At the 4th century, Constantin 1st seeks to soften their condition. The Church supports stampings and militates for a treatment worthy of the slaves but slavery as an institution is not called into question. Césaire of Arles did nothing but limit the punishment of a slave to 39 blows per day. It is interesting to note that at the beginning of the 5th century, Melanie, a Roman rich person, decides to free all the slaves from its fields. Several thousands of them refuse this generosity. Indeed the condition of small farmers at that time worsened so much that a slave treated with humanity does not have anything to envy to him. There is not almost more difference between a colonist, in free theory juridically, and a slave with.

Cities of late Antiquity

Five big cities dominate by the number of their inhabitants late Antiquity. It is about Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioche and Carthage. Alexandria, Antioche and Carthage has a population estimated between 100.000 and 150.000 inhabitants. The city remains the heart of the romanity. The traditional places of the Roman life, the thermal baths, the circuses and the Amphithéâtres are attended until the end of the 6th century and even beyond for Constantinople. But good number of old monuments are degraded because public finances are insufficient to provide for their maintenance, more especially as the period of late Antiquity is rich in earthquakes. Fifteen imperial constitutions from 321 to 395 are devoted in all or partly to the problem of the restoration of the old buildings. The cities of the Empire know transformations. They build ramparts at the centuries to protect itself. The great architectural innovation is the construction of Christian buildings, a Basilique, a Baptistère and the residence of the bishop, of which part of material used comes from old abandoned monuments. New imperial residences: Trier, Milan, Sirmium, Nicomédie profits from the presence of the troops and the emperors. In Rome, the enclosure built by Aurélien is modified by Maxence then Honorius to improve the effectiveness of it. The Aqueduct S, the bridges and the roads are maintained. The Amphitheater flavien, victim of the lightning in 320 and three earthquakes, is regularly repaired. The emperors of Occident do not have however finances necessary to maintain all the monuments the old imperial capital. Many work is insufficient to prevent the old monuments from degrading itself. The role growing of Christianity involves the construction of basilicas that of the Lateran, of Saint-Pierre or of Saint-Paul-out-the-walls, of the Catacombe S, Baptistère S and episcopal palates were built, enriched from 410 by the installation by marbles, mosaics and enamels. Until 410, Rome account approximately 800.000 inhabitants. The population turns around 300 to 400.000 inhabitants during all the 5th century. This high level of population can be maintained thanks to the good performance of the annone. 40% of the food of the inhabitants of Rome east ensured by the State. Constantinople, inaugurated by Constantin into 330 is built on a defensive natural site which makes it practically impregnable whereas Rome is unceasingly under the threat of the German ones. It is also close to the borders of the the Danube and the Euphrate where military operations to contain Persians and Goths are most important. It is finally located in the middle of the grounds of old Hellenic civilization. Constantin 1st builds it on the model of Rome with seven urban hills, fourteen areas, a Capitole, a forum, a Senate. In the first times, it allows the establishment of pagan temples but very quickly the city becomes almost exclusively Christian and comprises only Christian religious buildings. In a few decades, the city becomes one of the largest metropolises of the Roman East thanks to its political role and to its economic activities. As of Constantin 1st, the city counts 100.000 inhabitants. It reaches 200.000 inhabitants at the end of the 4th century. Constantinople, located out of the zones of conflict, sees its population increasing. The number of its inhabitants is discussed: 800 000 inhabitants during the 5th century for Bertrand Lançon, 4 to 500.000 for A. Ducellier, Mr. Kaplan and B. Martin. The embellishment of the city is the principal building site of the emperors starting from Constantin 1st. This one made built there, the imperial palace, the hippodrome, the new name given to the Roman circuses, the church of Crowned Wisdom (Holy-Sophie). The city increases then towards the West.

Roman Empire in the medieval world

Germanic invasions or migrations of Occident?

In 376, pushed back by the Huns, the Visigoths require asylum of the empire. Two hundred and thousand of them are established in the south of the the Danube, in Mésie in exchange of lifting of recruits. But they are exploited by the Roman civils servant and are not long in revolting. Slaves, colonists and workers of the mines unite with them to devastate the Thrace. Without awaiting the arrival of his Gratien nephew, retained by the Alamans in Occident, the Valens emperor starts the combat with his only army and is killed at the time of the battles of Turkey-red cotton into 378 where the cavalry wisigothe puts at evil the Roman legion. The new emperor of the oriental party of the Empire, Théodose 1st, pacifies Balkans quickly and succeeds in concluding new a fœdus with the Goths into 382. The Goths have the right to settle in Thrace. They preserve their own laws and are not subjected to the Roman taxes. They are thus quasi-independent even if they are committed being useful in the Roman army as federated, i.e. under the command of their own bosses. Théodose 1st benefits from this period of respite with the Goths to conclude a peace with the Sassanides which will last until 502.

After the death of Théodose (395), the Visigoths directed by Alaric plunder the Macedonia, the Thessalie, Greece. Arcadius negotiates at ransom price their withdrawal towards the west. Stilicon, general of origin vandal and tutor of the two young emperors, is prevented from fighting them by the sovereign of the East. In 402, whereas the Ostrogoths invade the Danubian provinces, the Visigoths penetrate in Italy. In 410, they ransack Rome. This episode is felt like a catastrophe by the Romans. The pagan ones see there the consequence of the abandonment of the traditional gods. Saint Jerome sees there the punishment of fished men. Saint Augustin affirms him that there is no bond between Christianity and the Empire. The final establishment of the Visigoths in Gaulle and Spain puts an end to their raids. But meanwhile, on December 31st, 406, the Vandals, the Sarmates, the Suèves, the Alains and the Alamans cross the the Rhine followed soon by the Burgondes. They devastate Gaulle and the island of Brittany, which is, consequently, definitively abandoned. The powerful party anti-barbarian present at the imperial court obtains a purification of the army and administration in Italy, depriving it of the effective and faithful defenders. The emperor, installed with Ravenne, is constrained to accept the installation of new cruel kingdoms as a Gaulle. In 429, the Vandals invade Africa from which they make the conquest in 10 years. They deprive Italy of one of its attics with corn, their fleet controlling the Western Mediterranean. They are moreover fanatic ariens and persecute the orthodoxe Romans. The imperial court is obliged to conclude from the fœdus with the invaders. In 435, the Vandals obtain in their turn the statute the federate ones in Eastern Africa. The king suève Herméric creates true a kingdom around his capital Braga by obtaining a fœdus into 437-438. The Danubian provinces remain faithful to the Empire but pass under the authority of Constantinople. The Roman Empire of Occident is reduced to the Italy and part of Gaulle.

Aetius, general of barbarian Valentinien III of origin, continues to fight against the Barbarians. It pushes back the Francs towards north, the Visigoths towards the south of Gaulle and Spain. It beats the Burgondes thanks to its army made up of Huns and transfers them in Sapaudia where in 334, Valentinien III authorizes them to settle as federate people. In 451, thanks to an army more barbarian than Roman, - it includes/understands a strong quota Visigoth -, he manages to push back Attila with the Bataille of the fields Catalauniques. But it is cut the throat of into 454 by Valentinien III him even, jealous of its successes. The emperor is in his turn assassinated by the partisans of Aetius. The Roman Empire of Occident then knows an political instability with impotent emperors, disputed by usurpers. In 455, Rome is plundered during more than one month by the Vandals of Genséric. The Barbarians extend then irresistibly in Gaulle in spite of the action from defenders from the romanity like Ægidius and his/her son Syagrius. One of them, Odoacre, deposits the very young emperor Romulus Augustule and sends the imperial badges to Constantinople into 476.

In 488, Théodoric Large the, king of the Ostrogoths conquers Italy, then with the hands of Odoacre at the request of the emperor of the East Zénon which is regarded as the only Master of the Empire. After the catch of Ravenne in 493, the power of the Ostrogoths extends in Italy, Sicily, Dalmatie and in the north of Italy. In its capacity as representative of the imperial capacity, Théodoric tries to extend its capacity on the other kingdoms barbs, ariens like him. For Théodoric, Goths are the guards of the Romans. The Roman administration thus remains. The policy and the culture Romans have a great influence on Goths. The Roman Emperor confers even the title of king to him. The kingdom ostrogoth of Italy is an excellent example of collaboration between Constantinople and the cruel kings.

Romanity in the East

At the 5th century, the East knows one long period of economic prosperity. The cases of the State abound in numerary out of gold. Under the reign of Théodose II, the continuous town of Constantinople to increase and receives a new enclosure, the wall of Théodose. A legal code is published, the code Théodose. However the Empire is destabilized by religious conflicts violent one, between nicéens and ariens and from 430 between nestoriens and monophysites. From 440, the Huns threaten the Byzantine Empire. A tribute and the granting of a Roman dignity with Attila makes it possible to move away the danger. Marcien, husband of Pulchérie, the sister of Théodose II reign from 450 to 457. Leon I {{er}} is the first emperor of the East to receive the crown of the hands of the Patriarche of Constantinople. Its grandson Leon II reigns only a few months. It is thus his/her son-in-law Zénon who revêt imperial purple during fifteen years from 476 to 491. It is under its reign that the last Roman Emperor of Occident Romulus Augustule is relieved by Odoacre. He is thus the only emperor of the Roman world but its authority on the Occident is only theoretical. Under the reign of Anastase (491-518), the war against Persians begins again. The senate chooses then an officer Macedonian, Justin (518-527) of which the nephew, Justinien climbs all the levels of the administrative career. Justinien (527-565) is the last Roman Emperor. It devotes most of its reign to take again to the Barbarians the grounds romanity. He thinks that any ground which was Roman remains Roman inaliéniablement. The Occident is thus the primary goal of Justinien. It conquers Africa on the Vandals in a few months. It benefits from the weakening of Italy after death of Théodoric to intervene in the peninsula into 535. The conquest more difficult than is envisaged and is final only at the end of a war devastator between 552 and 554. In 554, the Byzantines make the conquest part of the wisigothic Spain until Cordoue. Moreover, the conquests of Justinien are extremely expensive. He neglects the Persian threat which he temporarily draws aside by the payment of a tribute and that of Slavic which appear in the north of the Byzantine Empire. He thus sacrifices the future of vital areas for the Byzantine Empire or Byzantine to continue the dream of a universal empire. It does not manage either to reconcile holding them of Roman orthodoxy and the monophysites.

This reconquest exhausts Rome and Italy and is hardly durable. In 568, only the areas of Ravenne and Rome are still with the hands of Byzantines. The remainder of Italy became lombard. Under the reign of Héraclius (610-641) the Byzantine Empire takes an inescapable Greek character. The title of Basileus replaces that of Auguste, the provinces become topics . It is also the time of the first Arab conquests. The Syria, Jerusalem, the Egypt, the Mésopotamie are definitively lost after six centuries of romanity. The Byzantine world replaces the Eastern Roman world definitively.

Ancient Roman civilization

Resulting from the Italic influences, the Roman art takes its rise in contact with the Greek art which it a long time will imitate, then to improve technically and develop in properly Roman styles.

See the detailed article: Roman Art

Structure

The Roman Architecture opens out in the cities, the imperial architecture innovates in the generalization of the Voûte in semicircular arch, and the systematic use of the mortar (Opus caementicium) then of the brick ( Opus latericium ), carrying out increasingly daring monuments in Rome (the Pantheon, Colisée, imperial Forums, thermal baths, etc) and in the provinces (Pont of Gard, Arènes of Nimes, etc).

The taken again decorative techniques of the Greeks are sophisticated:

Fresco and Stucco of which remain of splendid examples with Pompéi and Herculanum,
mosaic, art carried at a top thanks to the introduction of polychromy, with the chiefs of works of the Roman Villa of Casale. The mosaic , which decorated the rich person residences, becomes a parietal Art in the churches and the Baptistère S as from the 4th century. The basilica Holy-Constancy with Rome but especially the Basilica Sant' Apollinare in Class and the Baptistère of Orthodoxe the of Ravenne built at the time of Justinien are the most accomplished examples.
Marquetry of marble or coloured stones ( Opus sectile )

See the typology of the monuments in the category Roman Architecture

See the list of the monuments in the category List of Roman monuments

See the article on the Latin Épigraphie

Sculpture

The passion of the Romans for the sculpture takes his rise at the end of, with the massive transfer to Rome of the statues of Syracuse and Tarente, then of Greece. The city decorates its forum and its monuments, while particular rich person constitute their private collections. The copies of Greek models multiply, us transmitting through the centuries of single testimonys of the Hellenic statuary. A properly Roman art of the Buste is formed, very realistic, which was diffused in all the Empire. Technique of bronze, perfectly controlled, produced spectacular achievements: statue of Néron-Photogravure, equestrian Statue of Marc-Aurèle.

From, the imperial portraits turn to imposing colossal (the such statue of Constantin I {{er}}), while the generalization of the Inhumation gives fresh impulse to the art of the Bas-relief on the Sarcophage S, with the decorative topics dyonisiaque or paléochrétiens.

See the articles on the Roman Sculpture and the Sarcophagi paléochrétiens

Minor arts or decorative

The Romans excelled in the production of luxury articles, diffused in all the Empire, and whose many vestiges reached us:

the sigillée Céramique with beautiful red varnish is characteristic of the Roman period. Its production, born with Arezzo, essaime in the provinces, where it reaches industrial volumes (batches of ten thousand parts with Graufesenque or Lezoux)
the production of Roman Verrerie experiences a great development, with the appearance of the technique of puffed up glass. Also controlling the processes of moulding, welding, grinding of glass, the Roman craftsmen produce chiefs of works
the Ivoire: it is used in decorative plating (for example in ceilings of the Domus aurea), or in a more practical use for the most luxurious models of shelves. There remain to us only the latest ivories, such as the consular diptychs or the Byzantine ivories
the Orfèvrerie, work of the Or, the money and the Bronze opens out in all the fields: sculptor (Treasure of Lyon-Vaise), money crockery (Cut Warren), Fibule S and jewels, small movable bronzes some, objects of pageantry like the Missorium de Théodose.
more modest and scorned first archeologists, the tablettery in bone manufactures small objects such as hairpins, small cases or cylindrical boxes, tokens and dice to be played, etc
their keys (very different as of ours)

Literature

The Romans revolutionized the written support of the books, by giving him the modern form which we know: they generalized the Codex, volume of sheets connected, more handy and easier to read than the traditional roller. The book became an object handy, easy to transport, arrange, readable by only one individual. But there remains a expensive object, even if the number of volumes in circulation increases considerably. The use of the parchment, more solid but more expensive extends at the expense of the papyrus. The passage of volumen to the Codex, sometimes of very reduced size, has as consequence the loss of part of the ancient texts which are not consulted any more. The place of the writing in the company becomes increasingly important.

As from the 4th century, the source of the literature is primarily Christian. The correspondence of some great minds of time, preserved very well, makes it possible to have a fine knowledge of mentalities of late Antiquity. The Greek Rhétorique is used by the Pères of the Church, that is to write sermons, to explain the holy texts or to try to convince the not-Christians. The Hagiographie multiplies. While telling the life of the Holy to the manner of Suétone or Plutarque, it concentrates on the Christian virtues of Saints to make examples for the reader of them. With, the kind hagiographic multiplies the accounts of miracles, which override the moral example. It is thus not astonishing that the major work of late Antiquity is a religious work. It is about the the City of God of Augustin d' Hippone, completed into 423. He retorts in a masterly way to the detractors of Christianity who made the religion responsible for the Sac of Rome of 410. In its theory of the two cities, it develops the idea that Rome is a terrestrial city thus mortal. The city of the Christians is the kingdom of God who awaits them after death. They should not thus bind their Christian faith to the existence of Rome even if they must serve the Empire honestly.

See the article on the Latin Literature, and the category Greek Literature of Roman epoch .

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